Research on Influencing Factors of Catch-Up in Complex Product Systems: Taking the China Manned Space Engineering Application System as an Example

Abstract

In the face of escalating global competition in science and technology, complex product systems (CoPS) have emerged as a significant indicator of comprehensive national strength. The exploration of the catch-up phenomenon holds substantial implications for subsequent development of CoPS. Existing CoPS research often focuses on a single engineering task (such as high-speed rail) and market logic (such as the telecommunications industry), examining the catch-up phenomenon from a single or hard-power perspective. However, the China Manned Space Engineering Application System (CMSEAS), with its significant international influence and dual characteristics of scientific research and engineering development, presents a different scenario. Its market value is difficult to be reflected in a short time, making the relevance of existing research limited. This study selected CMSEAS as a case, and acquired data through interviews, internal meetings, on-site observations, official websites, archives, and other forms. Based on grounded theory, open coding, axial coding, selective coding, and a saturation test were carried out, and a catch-up model of CoPS was constructed by considering various influencing factors. The results show that the catch-up is driven by five major factors: support force is the basic condition for its gradual growth; the management system, technical capability, and human resource are interdependent and serve as the direct drivers of the catch-up; and social influence plays a significant role in propelling the catch-up indirectly. Notably, the setup of a general department, interaction among different factors, cultural soft power, and social influence serve as useful complements to previous studies.

1. Introduction

Amid the new wave of technological revolution, complex product systems (CoPS), such as aerospace systems, ocean engineering, and large ships, have placed even greater emphasis on the country’s breakthroughs in major scientific and technological fields. They have profoundly impacted people’s lives, and served as a crucial indicator of comprehensive national strength. Consequently, CoPS have attracted considerable attention from the academic community. For instance, Annarelli et al. [1] used bibliometrics and co-citation analysis to explore the basic structure of product service system and servitization research, highlighting important future research directions such as digitalization and intelligent technology. CoPS evolved from the concept of large technical systems, distinguishing them from mass production with limited technical complexity [2]. They are characterized by high cost, technological intensity, customization, systems, networks, engineering construction, and service [3,4]. These characteristics also mean that the latecomer’s catch-up is significantly more challenging than mass production. Existing catch-up research is more focused on mass production and is not applicable to CoPS. Scholars have gradually begun to pay attention to the CoPS-based catch-up, while it needs to be strengthened both quantitatively and qualitatively. Therefore, conducting CoPS-based catch-up research is of great value to broaden the existing catch-up theory.

China Manned Space Engineering (CMSE), a prominent example of CoPS, has evolved from its initial 7 systems to its current 14 systems (see Figure 1 for details), symbolizing a bright name card for China to show to the world. CMSE has always attached great importance to the construction of space application force, and established the China Manned Space Engineering Application System (CMSEAS) as a separate system, distinct from platforms such as Manned Spacecraft Systems. At that time, it represented the largest national plan in China’s space science and application sector. CMSEAS has used platforms such as Shenzhou spacecraft, space laboratory, and space stations to execute large-scale application tasks [5,6,7,8,9], encompassing areas such as space science experiments, earth observation, and new technology experiments. Furthermore, it has successively developed advanced payloads, represented by a moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer and a space cold atomic clock. This has enabled CMSEAS to make significant strides, transitioning from a position significantly behind to partially leading the world.

Unlike other types of CoPS, such as large aircraft and high-speed rail, CMSEAS emphasizes scientific exploration and is not a single engineering task. In other words, it involves the integration of engineering development and scientific research. In addition, CMSEAS is positioned as an experimental application designed to bridge existing gaps, thereby introducing a higher degree of uncertainty. As a significant state-planned program, it relies on fiscal funding and is strategically significant, but its market value is difficult to realize in the short term. These situations make it difficult to find a systematic explanation for the evolution of CMSEAS from the CoPS-based catch-up research, which is more inclined toward a single engineering task [10,11,12], market logic [13,14], and hard power [15]. Furthermore, CoPS involve the joint action of various elements such as management subject, management activity, and management environment. This complexity limits the scope of analyses from a single perspective such as government [16] or system integration capability [17].

Based on the above analysis, this paper selects CMSEAS as a typical case of CoPS-based catch-up. It offers a comprehensive and systematic overview of the catch-up mechanism from multiple dimensions in its specific context. The grounded theory renders this study more congruent with engineering practice. By concentrating on the evolution of CMSEAS, this study enriches the theoretical framework of CoPS-based catch-up under diverse scenarios, and further emphasizes that managers of CoPS should give due consideration to both technical and non-technical factors.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The Origin of CoPS

CoPS not only catalyze economic growth but also serve as a crucial safeguard for national security and strategic interests, occupying a significant position in contemporary society. The concept of CoPS was systematically defined in the 1990s by innovation scholars, such as Hobday from the SPRU Center of the University of Sussex, therefore establishing a strong interrelationship between CoPS and innovation. CoPS consist of customized and interconnected elements such as control units, subsystems, and components, which form a complex system in a hierarchical manner [18,19]. Unlike mass production, CoPS challenge traditional innovation management theory and open up a new direction for innovation research. Consequently, CoPS have a long history with innovation research, including related studies such as innovation process and innovation management. Battistella et al. [20] explored the innovation processes within start-ups’ incubators from the perspective of complexity sciences, highlighting that elements such as innovation, learning, and self-organization epitomize the attributes of a complex system. Ethiraj [21] emphasized that the interaction among components in CoPS profoundly influences the allocation of innovative efforts, thereby impacting relative research and development investment. Gann et al. [22] primarily focused on innovation management within the CoPS domain, suggesting that the amalgamation of project and business processes enhances technical capabilities of project-based firms.

2.2. Influencing Factors Related to CoPS-Based Catch-Up

In recent years, there has been a gradual emergence of successful catch-up instances among the realm of CoPS. These include sectors such as the high-speed rail industry [23,24], telecommunication systems [25,26], the aviation industry [15,27,28,29], the stored program control switching industry [30], and the gas turbine industry [31,32]. The academic circle has gradually paid attention to management issues in practice, and factors such as government support and technology transfer have played an important role in promoting CoPS-based catch-up [33].

Some scholars have explored influencing factors of CoPS-based catch-up from a single perspective, and factors such as government [34,35,36], markets [13,14,37], the innovative management model [38,39], organizational capability [40,41], technological capability [17,42,43], and global value chains [44] all play important roles. Firstly, CoPS reflect the core competitiveness of a country, so the government often supports CoPS-based catch-up through various means such as policies and funding. Lv et al. [16] highlighted that effective government intervention under China’s specific context promoted the catch-up of high-speed rail technology, and the interaction between the government and micro-subjects also had reference value for other industries. Mei et al. [36] believed that synergistic evolution among high-speed rail, complementary assets, and the government was crucial for industry catch-up, and followers can maintain co-ordination between complementary assets and high-speed rail with participation from the government. Tang et al. [45] pointed out that, whether it was the planned economy or the market economy, the national system has promoted the development of China’s aerospace engineering in the specific historical stage. Secondly, factors such as market demand and market segmentation can effectively influence the construction of CoPS. Mu et al. [13] selected China’s telecommunication industry as a case of CoPS and found that strategies such as trading markets for technology and the government’s protection of domestic market could all affect its catch-up process. Guo et al. [46] pointed out that China International Marine Containers Offshore entered the market through international mergers and acquisitions, and achieved catch-up with international competitiveness through market-driven resource co-ordination, platform-supported process co-ordination, and value-led strategic co-ordination. Thirdly, when CoPS face a competitive market environment, the innovative management model can effectively promote the subsequent catch-up. Ouyang et al. [38] pointed out that China’s shield machine encountered a cold start challenge in its initial stage, and a balancing dilemma between new and old products in its acceleration stage, prompting leading companies to gradually explore a “dual-cycle innovation organization model” to achieve technological catch-up. Zeng et al. [39] reviewed the catch-up process of C919 trunk aircraft, believing that the “prime manufacturer-supplier model” was an important factor for COMAC to break through bottleneck technologies and achieve technological catch-up. Fourthly, the research and development process of CoPS is complex, with organizational capabilities being pivotal in ensuring seamless progression and successful execution. Davies [40] particularly emphasized project capabilities within CoPS, proposing an organizational learning cycle model to augment its efficiency in new business lines, thereby achieving “economies of repetition”. De Toni et al. [41] highlighted that dynamic capabilities of an organization were crucial in managing the internal complexity of CoPS, which was affected by factors such as uncertainty, dynamism, diversity, and interdependence. Fifthly, technological capability, such as digital technologies and system integration capability, plays an important role in the construction of CoPS. Szalavetz, A. [43] integrated four theories such as open innovation and absorptive capacity into a theoretical framework, and further explained the mechanisms in which digital technologies further blurred the boundaries among industries. Kiamehr et al. [17] used Iran’s power generation system as a catch-up case of CoPS, and constructed a framework of system integration involving three aspects: strategic integration capability, functional integration capability, and project integration capability. Hobday et al. [42] pointed out that system integration gradually evolved into a modern strategic capability spanning different departments, and served as an important cornerstone supporting competition in high-tech fields. Finally, we have also considered the literature on these two themes of CoPS: upgrading in global value chains and upgrading by becoming capable (technological capability and relational capability) to produce and commercialize CoPS. Turkina et al. [44] highlighted how leading firms in global value chains ensure system integration strategies through technological scope, global knowledge connectedness, and basic sci-tech innovations, so as to integrate global value chain activities. Minaee et al. [47] conducted an in-depth analysis of the limited catch-up in the Iranian automobile industry, and pointed out that factors such as the sectoral environment, industrial strategy, and structural issues could affect the ability of CoPS to achieve catch-up and upgrades.

In fact, the high complexity of CoPS means it is insufficient to analyze the subsequent catch-up process solely from a single factor. Therefore, it is a better framework to explore the process based on the joint action of multiple factors. Ranjbar et al. [48] analyzed driving forces in the technological catch-up of Iranian gas turbines from the national, industrial, and enterprise levels, and factors such as government policy, collaboration, and technology acquisition strategy all played an important role. Huang et al. [12] pointed out that the opportunity window provided by government policies further expanded the windows for technology and demand in China’s high-speed rail industry, thereby jointly driving its catch-up process. Ranjbar et al. [32] procured the necessary research data of Iran’s gas turbine industry through techniques such as in-depth interviews, pointing out that combined efforts of policy, market, and technological capabilities drove co-evolution in the innovation system. Liu et al. [49] scrutinized the distinct scenarios in the three major fields of high-speed rail, nuclear power, and aviation, emphasizing the crucial roles of government, technology, market and other elements in their catch-up process.

In summary, although the academic circle has gradually focused on the catch-up research of CoPS, it is still limited compared to the emerging practical cases. Existing research often narrowly concentrates on a single factor. However, given the intricate nature of CoPS, it is better to interpret this academic issue by comprehensively considering the combined force of multiple factors. Also, whether it is high-speed rail, a shield tunneling machine, marine engineering equipment, or large aircraft, none of them involves a scientific goal, and market logic plays a certain role in their catch-up process. Furthermore, previous studies have predominantly focused on hard power elements such as funding and technology, while cultural soft power has been largely overlooked. Based on the above points, the catch-up phenomenon of CoPS, such as the CMSEAS type, has not been fully discussed. Therefore, it is necessary to takes into account a variety of factors to conduct catch-up studies on CoPS similar to the CMSEAS type.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Method

This study aims to explore which factors contribute to CoPS-based catch-up similar to the CMSEAS type, in which the case study and grounded theory are two important methods. The case study is well suited for the situation where existing research is insufficient or where existing theories are difficult to explain practical phenomena [50]. Given the challenges associated with conducting large-scale quantitative research on the management practices of CoPS, it is appropriate to adopt a case study to explore the theoretical logic behind this practical phenomenon. In addition, grounded theory [51,52] is employed to conduct exploratory research based on CMSEAS. Grounded theory is a scientific qualitative research method, which is a theoretical construction rooted in phenomena [53]. It seeks to directly construct theories from data and is suitable for exploratory research. The process is shown in Figure 1.

3.2. Case Selection

CMSEAS was selected as a single case in this study, which can reveal the action mechanism in the CoPS-based catch-up process within similar situations. This selection is based on three primary reasons.

• (1). Typicality. Cases such as high-speed rail, shield machines, and large aircraft involve a single engineering task, where market logic plays a pivotal role. However, CMSEAS is not merely a single engineering task and encompasses two distinct types of engineering task and scientific research. In addition, unlike high-speed rail and so on, CMSEAS is entirely dependent on national appropriation, and market value is difficult to reflect in a short period. These two points possess certain typical characteristics, and offer insightful implications for other related research, such as future deep space exploration.

• (2). Importance. CMSE is a world-class project with profound international influence. It consistently adheres to the philosophy of “building a ship for establishing a space station, and building the station for space application”. Space application is the ultimate destination of CMSE. Consequently, CMSEAS plays a vital role in CMSE, and deserves academic attention.

• (3). Data availability. In the development of CMSEAS, there are some public materials in the National Press Office, news reports, audio, and video. In addition, relying on the support of CMSEAS’ overall unit, we can obtain internal materials such as archives and system documents, and participate in some internal meetings. Also, we could interview senior managers and frontline personnel of CMSEAS, maintaining prolonged interactions with these individuals throughout the research process.

3.3. Case Background

Since the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, mankind has gradually embarked on the exploration of space science. In terms of manned space science and application, it began with Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin’s orbital flight around the earth in 1961. Over the past 60 years, countries led by Russia (including the Soviet Union) and the United States have conducted a series of space science and application research through manned spacecraft, space laboratories, space shuttles, space stations, etc., exerting significant influence on fields such as basic physics, life science, and material science.

In fact, China began to carry out small-scale space science missions using recoverable satellites in the 1980s. In September 1992, CMSE, which covered the largest national space application program at that time, was established. Also, “the Three-Step Strategy” [54] delineates its progression into three distinct stages: manned spacecraft engineering, space laboratory engineering, and China space station engineering. Each stage is characterized by its different orientation towards space application, and the scale of space application is increasing. After 31 years of development, CMSEAS has delivered payloads such as the moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer, the multi-mode microwave remote sensor, and the scientific experiment cabinet. Also, it has conducted scientific research such as higher plant growth studies and space cold atomic clock experiments. In summary, CMSEAS has transformed scientists’ ideas into engineering realizations, achieving numerous domestic firsts, international advancements, and even some international firsts. This exhibits a catch-up trend overall, making it a typical case of CoPS.

3.4. Data Collection

Mao [55] pointed out that the selection of first-hand or second-hand data should align with a research question, and an excellent case study could be conducted using solely secondary data. Gioia’s case study published in Organizational Research Methods is an example of using exclusively secondary data to investigate counter-intuitive research questions [56]. CMSE, which is the trump card of China’s comprehensive strength, has a large time span and has gained high national attention. This special nature also means that authoritative reports such as the State Council Press Conference could provide highly reliable data for this study, and second-hand data also occupy an important position in data analysis. This study uses the combination of first-hand and second-hand data, a combination which forms triangular validation among these data, significantly enhancing their reliability and validity. Data sources are shown in Table 1. In particular, we hope to reduce the respondents’ concern and establish a mutual trust relationship. Therefore, interviewees were clearly informed of our academic purpose before the interview began, and pertinent details of the interview were properly protected and not arbitrarily disclosed or leaked.

Data from diverse sources are pivotal in data analysis, facilitating the possibility for data triangulation to identify and rectify potential biases brought about by single-source data. This study selected first-hand data and data from the Press Conference of the State Council Information Office (second-hand data) as data sources, conducting three-level coding. In comparison, other secondary data were used for comparison and verification. If there were contradictions or unclear explanations in the data information, other data, such as internal data, were collected to further enhance the reliability of this study. Taking interviews as an example, the subjectivity of the interviewees and deviation amongst the understanding of the information can all affect the data’s reliability. Therefore, data from other sources were cross-verified with the materials provided by the interview to correct these biases.

3.5. Data Analysis

This study used Nvivo 14 software to process the research data, and data analysis was rigorously conducted in accordance with a series of procedures in grounded theory. As shown in Figure 2, these procedures included three-level coding and a saturation test, where three-level coding encompassed open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. This comprehensive analysis was employed to address research questions concerning the catch-up process of CMSEAS.

Based on original data, this study chose three-level coding as a method to extract themes from bottom to top. Firstly, open coding involved the conceptualization of encodable fragments in the original data, and merged similar concepts to discover new categories. In fact, categories were more abstract concepts, sources for which could be found in the literature, interviewees’ language, or even researchers’ own creations. This study obtained 15 basic categories through open coding, such as national will, talent management, and late-mover advantage. Secondly, axial coding primarily involved identifying the potential logical relationship among basic categories and further extracting new categories with a higher level of abstraction. This study extracted six main categories by axial coding, including technical capability, human resource, and a management system. Thirdly, selective coding primarily involved piecing together logical relationships among main categories into a narrative, developing a core category and constructing a systematic theoretical model to answer the research question. Through selective coding, the core category was identified as “catch-up”, and a catch-up model of CoPS was developed around the storylines of core category “catch-up”.

Subsequently, a saturation test was executed to enhance the reliability of research conclusions. Specifically, when the collection of new data yielded novel concepts, categories, and relationships in succession, it failed the saturation test and necessitated further original data collection for coding. Conversely, if no such production occurred, this suggested that this study could cease data collection and coding. The theoretical model successfully passed the saturation test, indicating strong reliability and validity in the research.

4. Model Construction

4.1. Open Coding

After collecting and collating data, this paper processed the original data by open coding, and obtained reference points relevant to research questions. By conceptualizing these reference points, 30 initial concepts were obtained, and further abstraction of these initial concepts led to the identification of 15 basic categories such as national will, overall technological capability, and an organizational management model. Table 2 presents some examples of open coding, and the listed original data of CMSEAS are from press conferences held by the State Council Information Office (NR).

4.2. Axial Coding

During the axial coding phase, this paper further extracted new categories with a higher degree of abstraction. These new categories, also known as main categories, reflect underlying logical relationships among basic categories. This paper analyzed the correlation among 15 basic categories, and ultimately extracted 6 main categories. Axial coding is shown in Table 3.

4.3. Selective Coding

During the axial coding phase, this paper conducted a deep analysis of logical relationships among different main categories such as support force, technical capability, and management system, and developed a narrative based their logical relationships. Then “catch-up” was identified as the core category. Among five main categories, social influence played an indirect role, while the other four main categories were a direct influence. Table 4 and Table 5 showed the direct and indirect relationships between these five main categories and the core category “catch-up”, respectively. Specifically, support force from the nation and responsible department served as the prerequisites for CMSEAS’ catch-up. On this basis, the management system, technical capability, and human resource interacted directly, and drove its catch-up positively. Additionally, CMSEAS’ catch-up increased its social influence, and this social influence had a reciprocal effect on CMSEAS’ catch-up through human resource and support force. Based on this narrative, this paper constructed a catch-up model, as shown in Figure 3.

4.4. Saturation Test

The theoretical saturation test is a crucial step in the data analysis process. If new categories and relationships still emerge after coding, the theoretical model fails the saturation test. And subsequent data collection via techniques such as interview is imperative to perpetually refine the model until it successfully passes the saturation test. To examine whether the CoPS-based catch-up model reached theoretical saturation, this paper reserved five original data for the saturation test, but no new category or concept was found during this process. Therefore, this study considered that the model passed the saturation test.

5. Model Interpretation

The CoPS-based catch-up model involves five main categories: support force, management system, technical capability, human resource, and social influence. The core category is catch-up, and the following five influence paths exist around these categories: support force → catch-up; management system → catch-up; technical capability → catch-up; human resource → catch-up; catch-up → social influence → support force, human resource → catch-up. In particular, management system, technical capability, and human resource interact with each other.

5.1. Basic Condition: Support Force → Catch-Up

Support force, which covers two basic categories of national will and responsible department, is the foundation for the CoPS-based catch-up. For some CoPS, they are characterized by a strong exploratory nature, large investments, and the inability to reflect market value in a short period. In this context, the nation plays a decisive role. Specifically, the following are the two direct influence paths of support force on catch-up.

• (1). Aligning with national will is a necessary condition for the establishment and sustainable development of CoPS. In fact, financial allocation, the whole nation system, and national wise decision-making are of great significance to CoPS-based catch-up.

“The Party Central Committee made a historic decision to establish CMSE after sustainable deliberations and scientifically formulated “the Three-Step Strategy” based on China’s economic, technological, and resource realities.”

(quotation from ID)

“CMSEAS receives funds from rational allocation of CMSE’s fiscal appropriation, and its development benefits from national support to CMSE.”

(quotation from IW)

• (2). Responsible departments, which may include the government agency and centralized management department, play an important role in the process of pushing CoPS to catch up. For one thing, these departments may provide advanced philosophy guidance and multiple forms of support. For another, they may be responsible for centralized management to co-ordinate development of CoPS accordingly. The following lists the relative original material.

“CAS, centralized management department, specifically established Space Science and Application General Department (general department) to undertake this major special project, and leveraged the advantages of CAS’ affiliated research institutes, such as Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, to undertake application tasks.”

(quotation from NR)

5.2. Direct Influence Path: Management System, Technical Capability, and Human Resource → Catch-Up

5.2.1. Direct Influence Path 1: Management System → Catch-Up

The management system consists of two basic categories: a general department and the organizational management model, and the role of general department is crucial in integrating scientific ideas with engineering development. Specifically, the following are the two direct influence paths of the management system to affect the catch-up process.

• (1). The general department is a crucial entity for implementing the construction of CoPS, meeting its overall co-ordination needs. CoPS of the CMSEAS type are not a single engineering task, and the integration of scientific research increases their complexity. The general department transforms the ideas of scientists into technical indicators so as to meet the requirements of engineering development, and directly promoting its subsequent catch-up process. Here is the relevant original material:

“CMSEAS encompasses a diverse array of disciplines, featuring numerous subsystem research units that extend beyond the confines of CAS. The inception of general department effectively transcends the boundaries between these various units, thereby creating a cohesive force aimed at application tasks.”

(quotation from ID)

• (2). In the process of constructing the organizational structure of CoPS, “two lines and three systems”, built on the principle of hierarchical management, is an effective organizational management model that has been tested in practice. “Two lines and three systems” covers administrative and technical command lines, as well as three management systems of plan, technology, and quality. Specifically, two command lines are composed of managers and technical personnel at various levels, while three major management systems consist of dispatchers, chief designers, quality control personnel, and other personnel who are responsible for different levels of work. Here is the original material, which is about a plan management system, to present the relationship.

“Plan management covers multiple aspects such as fund, condition guarantee and large-scale experiments. CMSEAS has established part-time or full-time dispatchers from a general department level to the subsystem level. Regular and irregular scheduling meetings at all levels have become an important platform for different level to identify and solve problems.”

(quotation from ID)

5.2.2. Direct Influence Path 2: Technical Capability → Catch-Up

Technical capability, encompassing overall technical capability, independent innovation, and late-mover advantage, is an indispensable driving force for breakthroughs in major scientific and technological engineering. Here are three direct paths to impact.

• (1). Overall technical capability, which encompasses two initial concepts of overall design and a system integration test, is an important internal factor driving the catch-up. In fact, the technical work of CoPS involves more complex technical relationships and follows the principle of system engineering, pursuing overall optimization rather than simply overlaying individual tasks. The original material is as follows.

“As engineering practice advances, the volume, quantity and mass of payloads are constantly increasing, and lifespan of orbital missions is significantly extended. At the same time, different subsystem tasks exhibit significant technical disparities and are relatively autonomous. Therefore, overall design of CMSEAS is particularly important.”

(quotation from IW)

• (2). Late-mover advantage and independent innovation play a positive role in promoting CoPS-based catch-up. They are two different basic categories, but could be interrelated and mutually reinforced in certain circumstances. Specifically, despite facing technological blockades from abroad, latecomers still possess certain late-mover advantages. Methods, such as information collection, studying abroad, and technological exchanges, have become a beneficial boost for CoPS to achieve knowledge spillovers, which enhances their innovative capability in turn. Here is the original material related to “late-mover advantage, independent innovation → catch-up”:

“Scientific experiment cabinet, which does research and development from scratch, is an important payload equipment for China space station. The first-generation cabinet drew inspiration from the cabinet design of International Space Station (ISS), while the second and third generations gradually achieved significant breakthroughs, in which its payload carrying ratio far exceeded the cabinet of ISS.”

(quotation from NR)

5.2.3. Direct Influence Path 3: Human Resource → Catch-Up

Human resource includes two basic categories: talent management and spiritual culture, and serves as an important force to drive the evolution of CoPS directly.

• (1). Talent management, including four initial concepts of meritocracy, career retention, training mode, and training system, is the precious engineering experience accumulated by CoPS in practice. The whole team prioritizes talent over seniority, making bold moves to incorporate young talents into its ranks. It adopts a “learning by doing, doing by learning” model and exercises the talent team through various engineering tasks. Concurrently, it modifies talent team composition in combination with old and new talents, enhances team training, and improves the training system. These strategies have effectively facilitated the success of application tasks.

• (2). For CoPS that strongly stimulate national pride, spiritual culture serves as a crucial factor in talent attraction. This spiritual culture encompasses the precious qualities of hard work, tenacious struggle, overcoming difficulties, and selfless dedication, serving as the driving force for CoPS progress. Here is the relative original material:

“Payload equipments of CMSEAS basically face brand-new breakthroughs with tight schedules in each flight mission. Researchers often exhibit a willingness to make sacrifices, with some even experiencing the detrimental effects of overwork. For instance, the life of Researcher Wang Zhaoshen was ultimately lost in the pursuit of developing the multi-mode microwave remote sensor.”

(quotation from NR)

5.2.4. The Interaction among Management System, Technical Capability, and Human Resource

Management, technology, and talent are integral components of CoPS, each exhibiting a complex and interconnected relationship. Furthermore, the synergistic interaction among the management system, technical capability, and human resource forms the driving mechanism for the sustainable development of CoPS.

• (1). Human resource → management system, technical capability

Human resource plays a pivotal role in providing talent support and motivation for technical capability and the management system, serving as the key to achieving a virtuous cycle among these three elements. In particular, there exist the following two relationships, namely “human resource → management system” and “human resource → technical capability”.

We can elucidate these two relationships from the perspective of two human resource categories: talent management and spiritual culture. For one thing, the scientific talent selection, training, and incentive mechanism can supply CoPS with high-caliber talents who possess a profound technical background and management ability. This, in turn, stimulates innovative vitality, constructs a logical talent hierarchy, and ensures the development of technical and managerial competencies. For another, as a direct manifestation of cultural soft power, a positive spiritual culture can bolster employees’ sense of belonging and responsibility. It encourages them to explore uncharted territories, providing a continuous impetus for technological and managerial innovation. We take the original material in the relationship “human resource → technical capability” as an example.

“During the process of tackling infrared focal plane detectors, our scientific personnel showed no fear, and overcame numerous obstacles. Over the course of four years, a substantial amount of research materials were amassed, with scientific personnel residing in the laboratory continuously for up to 108 days during the most critical phase. Finally, the team successfully developed China’s own high-quality infrared focal plane detectors and precision refrigeration machines.”

(quotation from NR)

• (2). Management system → technical capability, human resource

The management system elucidates the organizational structure and institutional norms, thereby offering a robust assurance for enhancing technical capability and optimizing human resource’s allocation. Specifically, there exist the following two relationships, including ”management system → technical capability” and “management system → human resource”. Let us explain the two relationships one by one.

For one thing, three points could be elucidated in the relationship ”management system → technical capability”. Firstly, sound top-level planning offers strategic guidance for developing technical capability. Secondly, “two lines and three systems” further offer comprehensive support and protection for the actualization of these technical capabilities. Thirdly, cross-department collaboration effectively augments the overall competitiveness and fosters collaborative innovation and continuous improvement of technical capabilities. For another, in the relationship “management system → human resource”, the management system serves as a crucial catalyst for the sustainable development of human resource. This is achieved by guiding talent management strategies, fostering a progressive spiritual culture, and facilitating optimal allocation of human resource. We take the original material in the relationship “management system → technical capability” as an example.

“General department established the Division of System Design so as to integrate diverse technical forces. Guided by the Division, CMSEAS has successfully completed the application task designs for each spacecraft, such as configuration scheme design, structural layout design, and thermal control interface design.”

(quotation from ID)

• (3). Technical capability → management system, human resource

The enhancement of technical capability gradually accumulates a group of high-level talents, cultivates excellent spiritual culture, and further promotes the innovation and perfection of the management system. Specifically, there exist the following two relationships, namely “technical capability → management system” and “technical capability → human resource”. For one thing, the advancement in technical capability, such as big data and artificial intelligence technologies, prompts organizations to adopt more sophisticated management methods. Consequently, this leads to an enhancement in the efficiency of management and the quality of decision-making within CoPS. For another, new technologies often introduce new ways of thinking and problem-solving methods, further stimulating the innovative potential of talents. Also, this could elevate the quality of talents and provide more opportunities for their career development. Thus, robust support is offered to the development of human resource. The original material serves as an example in the relationship “technical capability → human resource”.

“The Payload Application Center’s development was significantly influenced by the overseas exchange studies undertaken by young scientific and technological leaders such as Meng Xin and Li Xuzhi between 1995 and 1996. This experience facilitated knowledge spillovers, which have proven beneficial to the project. Currently, researcher Li Xuzhi holds the position of deputy chief designer for CMSEAS.”

(quotation from FO)

5.3. Indirect Influence Path: Catch-Up → Social Influence → Support Force, Human Resource → Catch-Up

Social influence encompasses three basic categories: achievement transformation, science popularization education, and international influence. It exerts a reverse effect on the CoPS-based catch-up through support force and human resource. Specifically, given the limited role of market logic on the CMSEAS type, this reverse social impact serves as a crucial aspect of the catch-up model. The following presents the entire reverse influence process through two closely related links: “catch-up → social influence” and “social influence → support force, human resource → catch-up”.

• (1). Innovative achievements of CoPS expand its social influence through three aspects: achievement transformation, science popularization education, and international influence. Here are relative original materials:

“Earth observation payloads, such as moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer and multimode microwave remote sensor, have been transferred to application satellites, yielding significant benefits.”

(quotation from IW)

“Science popularization activities like the Tiangong classroom have further enhanced the influence of CMSEAS among the general public.”

(quotation from IW)

• (2). Social influence promotes catch-up development of CoPS through support force and human resource. Firstly, social influence of CoPS itself acts as a driving force for human resource. It further strengthens spiritual strength by enhancing a sense of honor among the CoPS team. At the same time, attracting talent through a noble cause is also a method of talent management in CoPS. Secondly, social influence could increase the support strength of the nation and responsible department so as to push its catch-up accordingly. Here are two relative original materials:

“Because of our deep love for this cause, we could always adhere to our original aspirations and remain loyal to our mission.”

(quotation from NR)

“The transformation of application achievements into practical productivity, aligned with national interests, could further augment national support for both CMSE and CAS.”

(quotation from NR)

6. Discussion

6.1. Comparison with Existing Research

CoPS can markedly augment a nation’s overall strength, thereby providing significant support for national security and strategic development. This study proposes a CoPS-based catch-up model, incorporating five primary factors. Furthermore, interactions among these factors exist. This study has, to some extent, advanced the existing research on CoPS, as evidenced by the following comparisons.

Firstly, existing research predominantly emphasizes the crucial role of market context in facilitating CoPS-based catch-up. For instance, Rui et al. highlighted that the goal of internationalization drove China’s high-speed train industry to shift from production’s catch-up to innovation capability’s catch-up [24]. However, CoPS of the CMSEAS type often have a clear political significance, making it difficult to estimate their market value in the short term. In contrast to the factors such as profit-driven motivations and market information feedback in market mechanisms, the reverse drive of social influence is a notable characteristic of catch-up development under the government mechanism. At the same time, country factors such as fiscal allocation and a national system are pivotal. Driven by national will, this nation system acts as the magic weapon for tackling such major tasks, co-ordinating resources nationwide, and achieving the highest research and development capabilities.

Secondly, existing research has predominantly emphasized the significance of system integration capabilities and management abilities, with Hobday et al. identifying system integration as a core capability of modern high-tech enterprises [42]. However, there is still insufficient attention given to the central department of system integration capability and management ability, namely a general department. This oversight may restrict the innovative development of CoPS from a more elevated perspective. In contrast, this study was based on the concept of system engineering, emphasizing the key role of a general department in co-ordinating, integrating, and optimizing the CoPS development process. Moreover, this study also highlighted the further development of its traditional function, such as the important role of a general department in translating abstract scientific concepts into specific engineering technical indicators in this case.

Thirdly, some research tends to focus on a singular dimension, resulting in an in-depth but narrow analysis. For example, Lee et al. [29] primarily concentrated on the technological learning patterns within the military aircraft industry, aiming to conduct an exhaustive investigation. However, this single-perspective analysis often neglects the overarching complexity and intrinsic interconnections among different elements of CoPS. Therefore, this study breaks through this limitation, comprehensively considering the impact of various factors, including management and technology, and deeply explores their interaction.

Finally, hard power factors, such as funding and technology, have received extensive attention in the existing research. For instance, Ranjbar et al. [48] focused on multiple driving factors at the firm, industry, and nation levels, yet it failed to mention cultural soft power factors like spiritual culture. In fact, it cannot be overlooked that insufficient attention has been paid to cultural soft power elements such as spiritual culture, and this unbalanced research may hinder a comprehensive and profound understanding of the CoPS-based catch-up process. In comparison, this study not only emphasizes cultural soft power factors like spiritual culture, but also explores the interaction between hard and cultural soft power, thereby providing a valuable supplement to existing research.

6.2. Model Applicability

This study provides an in-depth analysis of the CoPS-based catch-up process, and the academic model has a wide range of academic and practical implications. In particular, based on the uniqueness and generality of CMSEAS type, this study had the following two aspects to consider in terms of its applicability.

This research model is particularly applicable to the significant state-planned programs. The highest echelon of state decision-making plays a crucial role in proposing and further implementing these significant tasks. Key elements, such as financial allocations, national systems, and preferential policies, are important guarantees for tackling such major tasks. Such CoPS often yield positive social impacts, which in turn significantly drive their development. Specifically, projects like the Space Shuttle, International Space Station, and deep space exploration missions are analogous international endeavors. These major scientific and technological tasks focus on the forefront of science and technology, characterized by high risks, substantial investments, and political significance. Also, they are difficult to follow according to market logic. This type is very consistent with the context of this study.

The scope of this study could also extend beyond the significant state-planned programs. While emphasizing the uniqueness of CMSEAS-type research, it is essential to generalize the findings. Model elements such as technology, management, and talent, and their interactions, retain their instructive value for other types of CoPS. Specifically, CoPS are characterized by their high complexity and systemic nature, involving a vast array of components and numerous stakeholders. It is suggested that analogous institutions, such as a general department, be established to oversee and co-ordinate from the supreme level of the task. Secondly, it is necessary to fully utilize the latecomer advantage and vigorously carry out independent innovation when solving key technical problems. The two joint efforts are conducive to achieve self-reliance in science and technology. Thirdly, organizations could increase their training efforts for young talents and attempt to adopt a “learn by doing, doing by learning” model to train the talent team. Finally, attention should be paid to the interaction among different elements such as management, technology, and talent, and the overall benefits should be maximized based on the system concept.

7. Conclusions

This study selected CMSEAS as the case, and obtained reliable second-hand and first-hand data from diverse sources as original materials. Grounded theory is applied to construct a catch-up model, yielding five main categories: support force, management system, technical capability, human resource, and social influence. Around these five main categories, three propositions can be refined: ① support force → catch-up. Support from the nation and responsible department is a necessary condition to achieve catch-up. ② Management system, technical capability, human resource → catch-up. Three elements of management, technology, and talent interplay and directly constitute the important forces of the CoPS-based catch-up model. In particular, the establishment of institutions similar to a general department plays a crucial role in integrating scientific and engineering cultures, as well as fostering collaboration among diverse entities. ③ Catch-up → social influence → support force, human resource → catch-up. The CoPS-based catch-up generates positive social influence, which in turn affects the catch-up by support force and human resource. This phenomenon differs from the CoPS-based catch-up under market logic.

The theoretical value of this study mainly lies in the following three aspects. Firstly, there is relatively limited research on the CoPS-based catch-up, and rich practice cases stand in sharp contrast to the lack of theory. Different from previous CoPS cases such as high-speed rail, large aircraft, and marine engineering equipment, CMSEAS is not a single engineering task, and research under market logic is not applicable. This paper broadens previous conclusions through the following three points, namely the construction of a general department, attention to cultural soft power, and the counteractive influence of social influence. Secondly, the intricate nature of CoPS necessitates a multifactorial approach to its development. This paper provided a comprehensive analysis of the CoPS-based catch-up process, incorporating multiple factors including support force, technology, management, talent, and social influence. It also fully considered dynamic interactions among these factors, thereby enhancing existing research. Thirdly, this paper selected CMSEAS as a representative case for the CoPS, obtaining a theoretical model via grounded theory. This model elucidates various factors influencing the catch-up, thereby establishing a robust foundation for subsequent quantitative research.

This research provides valuable insights and actionable recommendations for policymakers and industry practitioners in the construction of CoPS, especially for the significant state-planned programs. On the one hand, it is imperative to bolster policy guidance, financial support, and publicity for policymakers. The state’s backing is crucial for the catch-up development of CoPS. Specifically, for the significant state-planned programs, resource assurances can be secured through fiscal allocation and national systems. Concurrently, their social impact and public acknowledgment can be enhanced by promoting public outreach such as science popularization, stimulating the sense of national pride among research and development personnel, and the public. This, in turn, can attract more talent and resources to CoPS. For other CoPS types, tax incentives and publicity may serve as guiding measures if deemed appropriate. On the other hand, this paper can also delve into its implications for industry practitioners in various ways, such as augmenting cultural soft power. Firstly, it is essential to establish a general department, which can fully oversee the research and development of CoPS, and progressively broaden its functions as required. The department’s comprehensive co-ordination capability should be harnessed to encourage cross-unit collaboration and resource sharing among stakeholders, thereby enhancing the management system’s efficiency. Secondly, the principles of system engineering should guide the research and development of CoPS, with a focus on quality management, technical management, and planning management in practice. During the CoPS technology breakthrough process, emphasis should be placed on the overall design of CoPS, and an entity department responsible for the design could be established if necessary. Finally, it is vital to articulate the team’s core value and ensure that it is deeply understood and recognized by team members through internal publicity, training, and support for employee growth. It is also crucial to integrate this value into employees’ behavior, and fully leverage cultural soft power to stimulate CoPS researchers.

The CoPS-based catch-up process is intricate and time-consuming. Although this paper has systematically analyzed the influencing factors of CoPS-based catch-up, its limitations cannot be ignored. Grounded theory, which is an appropriate method for exploratory research, inherently introduces a degree of subjectivity. Therefore, future research could incorporate questionnaire surveys to validate and refine the model, further assess the impact of different factors, and deepen our understanding of this research topic.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.C.; methodology, Y.C.; software, Y.C.; formal analysis, Y.C. and L.X.; investigation, Y.C. and L.X.; data curation, Y.C. and L.X.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.C.; writing—review and editing, Y.C. and L.X.; visualization, Y.C.; supervision, L.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Figures and Tables

Figure 1. System composition diagram of CMSE.

Figure 2. The flow chart of grounded theory.

Figure 3. The CoPS-based catch-up model.

Table 1

Summary of data sources.

Data Classification	Data Source	Data Despription	Data Encoding
First-hand data	Archive research	The archive data of CMSEAS from 1992 to the present	AR
	Field observation	Conduct field inspections on workplaces, such as the payload operation and control hall, integration hall, and software evaluation center, and maintain relevant records	FO
	Internal data	Internal meetings and internal materials of CMSE and CMSEAS, such as senior leaders’ speeches and system documents	ID
	Interview	Conduct semi-structured interviews with the senior, middle and grass-roots engineering staff of CMSEAS, and maintain follow-up communication with them	IW
Second-hand data	News report	Press Conference of the State Council Information Office, and other authoritative media	NR
	Official website	The official website of CMSE, CSU CAS and so on	OW
	Database	Collected papers such as CNKI and Web of Science	DB
	Book	Biographies of space experts and other books related to CMSE and CMSEAS, such as the Biography of Wang Yongzhi, Space Science, and Exploring Space	BK

Table 2

Open coding example.

Original Material	Phenomenon Abstract	Basic Category
Wang Ke, Deputy Chief Designer of CMSEAS:During the construction phase of the China space station, my team and I primarily focused on building the national space laboratory. At the outset, our average age was under 30 years old. Over the course of nearly 10 years, spanning 3000 days and nights, we often found ourselves without a clear understanding of rest periods, and had sleepless nights. However, driven by the cause, we maintained an unwavering commitment to our work, keeping a beginner’s mind and remaining dedicated to our mission. (NR)	a1: Average age of the science laboratory cabinet team was less than 30 at the beginning.a2: The team sacrificed countless rest times and spent countless sleepless nights.a3: Team members love the cause of CMSE with their hearts.	A1: talent management (a1, a3)A2: spiritual culture (a2)
Zhong Hongen, Deputy Chief Designer of CMSEAS:The core module has been in orbit for nearly a year, CMSEAS… Third, the container-less material scientific experiment cabinet has become the first domestic and second international similar research facility operating in orbit. It is higher than foreign indicators, has more powerful ability… Fourth, the high microgravity scientific experiment cabinet pioneers the double-layer vibration isolation scheme of magnetic levitation and jet suspension. This achievement has resulted in microgravity levels that are 2–3 orders of magnitude higher than those on the space station platform. We have achieved a microgravity magnitude of 1 × 10−7 g for the first time, reaching an internationally advanced level. This provides the conditions necessary to support cutting-edge research in fields such as relativity and gravitational physics. (NR)	a4: This is the first domestic container-less material scientific experiment cabinet, which has higher indicators and stronger capacity compared with foreign counterparts.a5: The high microgravity scientific experiment cabinet has the ability to carry out cutting-edge research and reaches an international advanced level.	A3: domestic first (a4)A4: international advanced (a5)

Table 3

The results of axial coding.

Main Category	Basic Category	Basic Category Meaning
support force	national will	The nation provides support through measures such as the whole nation system, financial support, and so on.
	responsible department	Responsible departments may include institutions, which manage it on behalf of the government agency, or put it under centralized management by specialized departments. Responsible departments mainly refer to the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) in this case.
technical capability	overall technical capability	This mainly includes the overall design and system integration testing.
	independent innovation	This refers to the process of exploring independently, overcoming technological challenges, mastering core technologies with innovative intellectual property rights, and ultimately achieving value.
	late-mover advantage	Latercomers improve their own innovation ability by scientific and technological exchange, information collection, and other ways.
management system	general department	This is a research entity that achieves overall optimization of benefits through methods such as overall design and overall co-ordination.
	organizational management model	This mainly refers to the “two lines and three systems” management mode under hierarchical management, including an administrative command line, technical command line, technology management system, plan management system, and quality management system.
human resource	talent management	This not only covers the training mode and perfect training system, but also includes the ways of using and accumulating talents by career.
	spiritual culture	This refers to the spiritual quality of being particularly hardworking, particularly brave, particularly capable of tackling problems, and particularly dedicated. The main embodiment is human spaceflight spirit in this case.
social influence	achievement transformation	Achievements, such as earth observation and microgravity science, could be applied to the national economy and people’s livelihoods.
	science popularization education	This refers to improving the public’s literacy by a series of activities, such as space teaching.
	international influence	Achievements, such as space life science, could enhance China’s international status in related fields.
catch-up	domestic first	Relative achievement is the first of its kind in China, such as the multimode microwave remote sensor of Shenzhou IV.
	international first	Relative achievement is the first of its kind in the world, such as the space cold atomic clock experiment of Tiangong-2.
	international advanced	Relative achievement is the international advanced level of its kind, such as the high microgravity science experiment cabinet in the China space station.

Table 4

Direct relation of main category and core category.

Typical Relation	The Essence of Relation	Classic Reference Statement
support force → catch-up	Support force is the important prerequisite to catch-up of CMSEAS.	The achievements of CMSE and CMSEAS are the result of the correct decision-making, strong leadership, and high priority given by the Party Central Committee and the State Council. (AR; support force [national will] → catch-up)
technical capability → catch-up	Technical capability is the core driving force for the latecomer to catch up.	When the task was first assigned, no one knew what “space laboratory” should look like. We therefore designed it with the International Space Station as a benchmark, resulting in the birth of the first generation scientific experiment cabinet. (NR; technical capability [late-mover advantage] → catch-up)
management system → catch-up	The sound management system serves the catch-up process directly.	A general department has fully utilized its favorable conditions as the specific entity responsible for implementing major special projects in the field of CMSE on behalf of CAS. Through the implementation of the space laboratory and space station application missions, CMSEAS has innovatively produced a series of world-class space application instruments and equipment, made breakthroughs on a number of significant scientific issues, and promoted related fields into the world’s advanced ranks. (ID; management system [general department] → catch-up)
human resource → catch-up	Human resource is the key force to realize catch-up.	The current chief commander of CMSEAS, Academician Gao Ming, was only 42 years old when she took over the appointment, while the former chief commander, Academician Gu Yidong, was retained as a senior advisor to further inherit engineering practical experience. Also, a general department of CMSEAS duly organised training at subsystem levels all the time. (IW; human resource [talent management] → catch-up)

Table 5

Indirect relation of main category and core category.

Typical Relation	The Essence of Relation	Classic Reference Statement
catch-up → social influence → support force, human resource → catch-up	Catch-up brings positive social influence, which in turn reacts on catch-up through support force and human resource.	The joint space life science experiment conducted aboard Shenzhou 8 by China and Germany was the first international co-operation of CMSEAS, and German media tracked reports for a month. It was reported extensively on the front pages of three mainstream media outlets on the day of the launch. God, it was such a grand occasion. Later, they invited us to discuss further co-operation. (IW; catch-up → social influence [international influence])In the historic moment of 16 October 2003, when our space hero Yang Liwei stepped out of the returning capsule, everyone cheered with tears in their eyes. The images of eight outstanding scientists such as Academician Li Jun, Liu Chengxian, Zhou Benmao, and Wang Zhaoshen came to mind. Some fell on the train on a business trip, some fell on the side of the road rushing to the research site, and some sacrificed their jobs in the lab… They fought to the last moment of their lives for the space application cause. They did not see the results of the victory, but their spirits live forever. (ID; social influence → human resource [spiritual culture])Strategic scientists, leading figures, and young backbone talents are cultivated, trained, and delivered to provide continuous strength for scientific and technological innovation in the process of engineering practice. (ID; human resource [talent management] → catch-up)

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