1. Introduction
According to the World Bank report, railways are climate-smart and efficiently economical modes of transportation [1]. The railway does not receive the transport share and respect that it deserves. In addition, it is poorly integrated, uncompetitive, has slow speed and high prices, lacks reliability, and is often neglected by the users. The world’s railway network spans over 1.3 million km worldwide, including the United States as the largest network following Russia, China, India, Canada, Germany, and France [2]. In grown economies like India, where railways have been established for over 160 years, most kinds of information and communication technologies (ICTs) have evolved, adapted, and been diffused into the system. Many aspects affect the diffusion of ICTs into the system, e.g., socio-political aspects, socio-economic demographic (SED) conditions, and political power influence, [3] but the most important elements to consider that are left out are the needs, capabilities, perspectives, and strengths of the people to access these ICTs and obtain their benefits when required.
Rightly equipped with technology, the overall improved status of railways can share overburdened roadway network systems and can also share the environmental load [4]. The nexus of energy-transport ICTs is the potential future of an efficient railway system [5,6]. The revolution of railway systems worldwide is rationalized with the incorporation of high-tech infrastructural facilities and complex advancements in the users’ abilities to rely on the system enriched with modern technologies [7]. To achieve this global target in which railways are equipped with ICTs and their user-friendly user-interface, it is important to evaluate the existing system of railways and understand the perceptions, satisfaction, and capabilities regarding using ICTs.
The role of ICTs is critical in enhancing passenger satisfaction and experience in railways as they can improve service delivery, comfort, and convenience. So far, in emerging economies, railway systems lack technological infusion, which reduces the overall efficiency of the system. ICTs can help passengers with online pre-bookings and reservation systems in which passengers can easily book tickets through websites and mobile apps to check availability and book seats in advance, reducing personal visits to ticket counters. Real-time information and updates regarding train schedules, delays, platform changes, and expected arrival times can be given via mobile phones, digital boards, and additional alerts and notifications for further information. Smart ticketing systems involve paperless and contactless ticketing systems, with QR codes and e-tickets, which can improve the boarding process and reduce counter queues.
Passenger information systems (PIS) help in reducing interactive delays. For example, digital displays on trains and at stations provide passengers with route maps, journey progress, upcoming stations, and other relevant information. ICT-based systems can offer information in multiple languages, making it easier for international or non-local passengers to navigate. An enhanced onboard experience gives Wi-Fi and connectivity, as many railways offer onboard Wi-Fi and internet services, allowing passengers to work, stream entertainment, infotainment, and other similar options, or stay connected during their journey. Smart stations and facilities, such as automated kiosks that offer self-service at stations, can allow passengers to book tickets, print boarding passes, and receive information about their journey. Also, smart gates and turnstiles, in which ICTs improve the entry and exit process through automatic gates that scan QR codes or contactless cards, reduce wait times and improve flow.
Passenger feedback and service improvement through digital feedback mechanisms, in which rail operators can collect real-time feedback from passengers through mobile apps and websites, help them to quickly identify areas for improvement. To further help maintain data from passengers, ICTs allow railways to analyze passenger behavior and preferences, helping to optimize services, schedules, and capacity management. In personalized services, ICTs allow railways to offer personalized notifications and updates based on the passenger’s preferences, journey history, and frequent routes. Integration of ICTs into customer loyalty programs enables better engagement, offering incentives like discounts, upgrades, or reward points. Safety and security involve CCTV- and ICT-based surveillance systems at stations and onboard trains to help monitor activities, enhancing passenger safety. For critical issues related to emergency communication, ICT enables real-time communication with authorities in the event of emergencies to ensure quick response and assistance. For sustainability and energy efficiency, ICT systems monitor and manage energy consumption in trains and stations, promoting greener and more sustainable railway operations, which can also enhance passenger experiences by aligning with eco-conscious values. Hence, ICTs in railways enhance passenger satisfaction by providing seamless, efficient, and convenient services across the entire travel journey, from booking to arrival, with improved safety, comfort, and real-time communication.
Therefore, this study focuses on the uplift of railway systems, particularly in developing countries, through users’ experience and technological infusion. The objective is to investigate the awareness of people regarding ICTs and their views related to facilities and customer services that can improve the railway system. This study is beneficial from a regional perspective, as it can lead researchers toward a fully established railway system as a main transport mode. A questionnaire survey has been conducted with the users of the Pakistan Railway service, and the collected data have been analyzed using statistical methods to make significant inferences. This paper is organized in the following way. A relevant literature review is presented in the Section 2. Research methods are discussed in Section 3. Survey results and their analysis are presented in Section 4. Discussion on results is provided in Section 5. The Section 6 summarizes the key findings of this study.
2. Literature Review
Smart technologies and ICTs have significantly transformed the railway industry, particularly in enhancing user experience and satisfaction. Railway systems around the world are leveraging these technologies to optimize service efficiency, safety, convenience, and comfort. As railways become more integral to the urban and intercity transportation network, the adoption of smart technologies is essential for addressing the growing demands of passengers for real-time information, seamless travel, and improved safety. This literature review examines the role of smart technologies in the railway sector and how they contribute to enhancing user experience, drawing insights from various peer-reviewed studies.
One of the most visible applications of ICTs in railway systems is in the realm of online ticketing and reservation systems. These platforms provide passengers with the ability to book tickets remotely, check seat availability, and select preferred seats, all from mobile devices or computers. Numerous studies highlight that online booking systems have become crucial in reducing long queues and improving customer satisfaction by providing greater convenience and flexibility [6]. Moreover, the integration of dynamic pricing models has allowed railway operators to offer more cost-effective options to passengers, which directly impacts user satisfaction. As users appreciate the flexibility and transparency in ticketing processes, this form of smart technology has significantly enhanced the user experience.
PIS represent another critical aspect of ICTs in railways. These systems provide real-time information to passengers regarding train schedules, platform changes, delays, and estimated arrival times. Studies show that real-time updates not only reduce passenger anxiety but also improve overall travel experience by offering timely and accurate information [8,9]. Passengers can make informed decisions, adjust their travel plans, and avoid uncertainties associated with unexpected disruptions [10,11]. Furthermore, PIS can display information in multiple languages, thus catering to a diverse passenger demographic, enhancing accessibility and user inclusivity. The effectiveness of PIS is largely dependent on its real-time accuracy, and studies have shown that passengers are more likely to trust railway systems that consistently provide reliable updates [12]. The availability of information via digital displays, mobile apps, and online platforms has created a more responsive railway environment, allowing passengers to better manage their time and travel schedules. These systems reduce the perceived waiting time and improve passenger satisfaction, particularly in regions where train punctuality is inconsistent [13].
Smart ticketing systems have revolutionized the way passengers interact with railway services. The shift from paper-based tickets to digital and contactless systems has made the process of purchasing and validating tickets more convenient for passengers. A study shows that the integration of smart cards, RFID technology, and mobile payment systems not only streamlines the boarding process but also reduces human errors and the need for physical ticket counters [14]. Passengers can use apps or contactless cards to purchase tickets, making the entire experience faster, smoother, and more efficient. Also, contactless payments have significantly reduced transaction times and improved throughput at busy stations [15]. This advancement allows passengers to avoid long queues at ticket counters, especially during peak travel times, enhancing the overall travel experience. The convenience of using mobile phones or smart cards for ticketing aligns with modern passenger expectations for seamless, paperless travel solutions.
In the future, one of the most desired features in modern railway services is the provision of Wi-Fi and onboard connectivity. With increasing dependency on digital devices, passengers expect uninterrupted internet access during their journeys. Research shows that the availability of Wi-Fi has a direct impact on customer satisfaction, particularly for long-distance travelers who may wish to work or engage in leisure activities during their trip [16]. Free or low-cost internet access has become a competitive advantage for railway operators in attracting technologically adept and business travelers. Studies have further indicated that passengers regard Wi-Fi as a critical component of their onboard experience [17,18]. Rail operators are also leveraging IoT (Internet of Things) devices and sensors to monitor train conditions and ensure uninterrupted connectivity. The combination of these smart technologies allows passengers to have a smoother, more productive, and enjoyable journey, ultimately improving their overall perception of the railway service.
The use of ICTs in enhancing safety and security within the railway system is well-documented. Smart surveillance systems, including CCTV cameras, facial recognition, and real-time monitoring, are integrated into many railway networks to ensure passengers’ safety. As mentioned by [19], these systems help prevent security breaches, detect potential threats, and enable faster responses to emergencies. Railway operators can monitor live feeds, ensuring a proactive tactic for safety management. Also, emergency communication systems that allow passengers to report incidents or demand assistance have been introduced as part of the broader safety initiatives. These ICT-based solutions offer real-time connections with railway authorities, further contributing to the overall safety and security of passengers.
Smart technologies allow for the collection and analysis of vast amounts of passenger data, which can be used to tailor services to individual needs. Through mobile apps and loyalty programs, railway operators can provide personalized notifications, special offers, and route recommendations based on passengers’ travel histories and preferences [16]. This kind of data-driven personalization has been shown to improve passenger satisfaction by offering a more customized and responsive travel experience. By analyzing travel patterns and passenger feedback, railway companies can optimize their services, improve timetables, and better manage capacity, ultimately resulting in more efficient operations and enhanced customer experience [20]. Therefore, smart technologies and ICTs are playing an increasingly critical role in the railway sector, particularly in enhancing the passenger experience. From online booking systems and real-time updates to onboard connectivity and smart ticketing solutions, these technologies are reshaping the ways passengers interact with railway services. The integration of data-driven customized safety features and efficient payment systems demonstrates the potential of smart technologies to transform rail travel into a seamless, convenient, and enjoyable experience. As the demand for smarter, more connected travel grows, the role of ICTs in improving the user experience within the railway sector will only continue to expand.
Post-COVID, traffic and travel patterns, particularly through railway public transport, changed. Data from smart cards shows the overall trends and that train users returned to their traveling preferences via train but with precautionary measures provided if they did not have the option of teleworking [21]. Socio-demographic aspects have complicated relations to commuting through trains. Some studies, such as [22,23], showed that regardless of socio-demographic compositions, increased developmental density and infrastructure are linked with increased public transportation travel, particularly by train, whereas some studies [24,25] emphasized the fact that individual passengers’ socio-economics, family, and travel characteristics strongly affect the choice of railways as a mode of convenience.
Ridership through railways depends on many other factors, such as trains’ connectivity, pricing models, accessibility to alternative modes, connected shuttle services, shared mobility incentives, and dynamic spatial planning [26]. One way or another, these are related to the users, their perceptions, behaviors, comfort, capabilities, and the services that they are expecting from railways as a desirable mode. Therefore, it is important to consider the impact of user’s SEDs along with other variables as of due importance, and it is addressed in this study.
The concept of inclusive design and equitability involves careful consideration of the accessibility and comfort of the users, particularly people with disabilities. Globally, many initiatives are taken worldwide, such as step-free access to railway stations for people with reduced mobility [27], provision of wheelchair accessibility and specific lifts [28], and many other such facilities for vision- and physically impaired users. In this aspect, the more important matter of concern is to keep these facilities updated and in order [29]. As there is no previous significant study found in the case of Pakistan, this study takes up the issue of train travelers with disability.
Trains are preferred for long-distance travel, as a study [30] suggests that long trips via trains are perceived as worthy and offer more potential for a shift in terms of quality of travel and multi-modality. It provides chances to meet more people, and good company also improves the perception of usage; additionally, facilities like internet services help passengers to stay indulged in healthy activities. Integrated railway systems, such as bicycle-train travelers, add value to the strong growth of the public transportation system [31]. Also, travel frequency and trip purpose are the main influencing factors that affect travel behaviors [32]; therefore, both are included in this study to improve the mobility conditions for travelers by train.
Setyawati [33] concluded that the quality of service and facilities has an influence of around 78% on train users’ satisfaction. Many studies have considered many variables related to customer care and satisfaction, such as the cleanliness of stations and trains and measures to maintain social distancing [34], ticket reservations, and refund processes, and measures to avoid delays in operational activities and abhorrent behaviors of staff are common [35]. Other studies showed that investing in new job creation in the sector, contributing to national economic development, environment safeguarding, and, above all, passenger safety, significantly affects customers’ level of satisfaction, which is positively related to passengers’ loyalty, their recommendation of service to others, and finally their willingness to pay relatively higher fares [5,36,37]. Therefore, this study has included detailed variables related to user satisfaction related to facilities, services, and customer care.
The scope of this study is strictly limited to intercity train experiences, satisfaction, and perceptions about ICTs in the railway system. This study identifies the following research hypotheses, which are tested using the results of a questionnaire survey.
There is a correlation between socio-demographic factors, the frequency of train travel, and satisfaction levels.
Satisfaction with station and train facilities, as well as customer care, impacts users’ travel likelihood with the train service.
Users’ familiarity with the perceived benefits of ICTs influences passengers’ travel likelihood with train service.
3. Research Methodology
The methodology section involves the questionnaire design, sample size determination, and sampling method following details about the case study and data distribution. It is important to mention here that three types of facilities are focused on; i.e., station and train facilities and customer care. Station facilities refer to the amenities and services provided at train stations; for example, ticket counters and vending machines, waiting areas or lounges, restrooms, accessibility features such as elevators, ramps, etc., information kiosks or digital boards, parking lots and bike racks, shops and food stalls, Wi-Fi services, etc. Train facilities refer to the amenities and services available onboard trains; for example, seating, arrangements, standard or first-class sleeper, restrooms on the train, power outlets and Wi-Fi, luggage racks and storage areas, food and beverage services, cafes or vending trolleys, air conditioning or heating, accessibility features such as ramps, priority seating, etc. Customer care refers to the support services offered to passengers to enhance their travel experience and resolve issues; for example, customer service desks or in-person or online helplines, assistance with ticketing, refunds, or cancellations, handling complaints and queries, lost-and-found services, special assistance for elderly, disabled, or pregnant passengers, and real-time travel updates and information. These terms collectively cover the full range of services that passengers might interact with during their travel experience.
3.1. Questionnaire Design
Considering the objective of this study, a questionnaire was designed to investigate various aspects considering the perceptions of railway users. The questionnaire was divided into four main sections, which include users’ basic information regarding age, gender, occupation, education, disability, etc. The disability that is considered in this study is mainly physical, such as limb dysfunction, severe joint immobility, partial paralysis, vision impairment, and immobility issues due to aging. The second section involved details of trips of railways users, including motives and barriers to travel through train/railway systems, respectively. The third section asked about the users’ satisfaction with station facilities, train facilities, and customer care attributes. The fourth section included the familiarity of users with ICTs and the potential benefits that users can have access to if the railway system is equipped with ICTs, respectively. In total, there were 16 questions that were answered by the recruited subjects. All questions in sections 3 and 4 were evaluated using a binary scale, i.e., Yes, No.
3.2. Sample Size and Sampling Methods
The sample size was estimated using the Cochran formula,
(1)
where n is the sample size, z is the selected critical value of the desired confidence level, p is the estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in the population, q = 1 − p, and e is the desired level of precision or allowed error in the estimation. The calculated sample was around 400; however, to obtain a good hold on the information, it was raised to 800 subjects. The data were collected through self-reported questionnaires and were analyzed later. In addition, discussions with railway experts were included to understand the margin of improvement. The respondents were selected randomly to complete the survey. The questionnaires were completed by survey team members who were undergraduate students of transportation engineering. All the respondents were interviewed by the survey team members. The railway station Lahore was selected as the area of data collection, and users of railways were approached to collect data through a random sampling technique.3.3. Data Collection
The data were collected from the Lahore junction railway station, where the intercity railway system exists. It is one of the oldest stations of the Indian subcontinent, dating back to 1860. The questionnaire consisted of 16 questions, and Table 1 shows the details of questions posing variables, types of variables, and categories of variables.
4. Survey Results and Analysis
This section provides a detailed interpretation of results obtained through analysis.
4.1. Socio-Economic Information of Railway Users
The data collected through a questionnaire were analyzed, and the results are presented below. Table 2 shows that the most prominent age group that traveled by train was 18–25 years (61.3%), which marks its users as quite young, and the least was above 55 years (2.5%). The categories of age range groups were chosen based on the usual practice in the literature and with the understanding that, with the change in each age bracket, maturity, responsibility, physical abilities, financial conditions, etc, change too. Men were the more prominent users, with 66% of the share. In contrast, women made up 33.2%, which should not be considered as less; in developing countries with security and privacy issues, women traveling independently through railways shows that they are in dire need of such modes that are long distance and low fare and where road transport is not accessible. Of the respondents, 54.6% were students who used trains quite frequently, and 13.5% were from the private sector. The middle class had the highest percentage of 42% among all other courses, and the highest SED group used the train least, with 9.5%. Education-wise, those with bachelor’s degrees were 38.5% train users, compared to those who did not attend school, which was 2.3%. Of the train users, 96.6% were not disabled, but 3.4% of users were disabled in multiple forms; all of them were physically disabled with limb dysfunction. Notably, this 3.4% should not be taken lightly in any form because disability is a major concern around all transport modes.
4.2. Travel Information of the Railway Users
Figure 1 shows the variables that are related to the traveling of users through trains. Occasional travelers were 64.1%, following monthly travelers with 16.2%, and weekly with 4.3%. Occasional travelers are those who travel via train once in a blue moon; it could be for tourism, recreation, a festival holiday, to see a relative, etc. Occasional trips via train happen either every year or maybe in a couple of months. The least were daily travelers, with 1.5%. Notably, 13.9% of people have never traveled by train. This implies that approximately 22% of respondents are regular users of trains and prefer trains to other modes. This percentage can be encouraged to raise to enhance ridership.
The figure also shows that most traveling was for recreational trips, with a 46.1% share, following work trips with 34%. Educational trips held a good percentage of 16%, and the lowest share was for medical and health-related trips. This implies that emergency-based trips usually cannot be made through trains. Also, work and educational trips are usually regular and frequent trips, whereas recreational trips are occasional trips.
The third variable was travel through which type of bogie; i.e., economy, lower with air-conditioned or standard class, air-conditioned with business class, or parlor car. Usually in Pakistan, these four bogies are present, and results showed that the most preferred was economy class with 40.5% share, followed by business with 28.1% and standard with 22.4% classes, respectively. The least was parlor cars with 9%, which are the most luxurious and are not always available on each train. This implied that people preferred to travel through economy class with lower fares and a minimum to medium level of facility provision.
4.3. Motives and Barriers to Choosing Railways/Train Compared to Other Transport Modes
The motives and barriers to picking railways as a mode of travel compared to other modes are expressed in Figure 2 and Figure 3, respectively. Long-distance travel typically refers to trips lasting more than two hours. In this study, the focus is on intercity trains, which travel between consecutive or non-consecutive cities and are therefore classified as long-distance transport. A common perception, supported by the graph below, is that long-distance travel should prioritize comfort to ensure that passengers of all ages and characteristics can travel with ease. Although long-distance journeys may seem costly and time-consuming, users often choose this mode because it is more economical and time-efficient compared to other options on the same route. Reliability in this context refers to the railway’s ability to consistently deliver daily services while maintaining high standards, particularly about scheduling. Passengers expect reliability not only in terms of punctuality but also in ensuring safety, protecting luggage, avoiding unnecessary delays at stations, maintaining hygienic conditions, and ensuring smooth, hassle-free operations.
Results show that the most prominent motive to use the train was long-distance travel at 38.1%, which is preferable through train, following comfort at 15.3%, affordable at 14.6%, time efficiency at 13.4%, availability of service when required at 10.8%, safety and security of lives and luggage at 4.5%, and reliability of services at 3.4%, which is the least share among all. The results indicate that long-distance travel is the most significant motive for using trains, far surpassing other factors like comfort, affordability, and time efficiency. This suggests that people choose trains primarily for long-distance journeys, likely due to their ability to cover greater distances more conveniently compared to other modes, such as buses or cars.
The preference for long-distance travel by train could be explained by several factors, such as space and amenities and rest breaks. Trains generally provide more room to move around, along with access to basic facilities like restrooms and food services. These conveniences make longer trips more bearable, which is crucial for passenger comfort during extended travel. Unlike car travel, where passengers often need to stop at rest stations, trains offer a continuous journey, with passengers able to relax, walk, or use facilities while traveling. Interestingly, comfort follows long-distance travel as a significant factor, showing that people associate train travel with greater ease, particularly for longer journeys. The combination of more legroom, smoother rides, and the ability to move around freely on a train contrasts with the restrictions in other forms of transportation like buses, where space and freedom of movement are limited.
Affordability and time efficiency are nearly equal in importance. This highlights that many passengers perceive train travel as a cost-effective and time-saving solution compared to alternatives like air travel or road transport. Particularly in regions with well-established train networks, trains can provide direct routes that are faster and cheaper than driving or flying. What is notable is that availability when required, safety and security, and reliability, although important, rank lower as motivating factors. The relatively low percentage of people choosing trains primarily for reliability suggests that while consistent performance is a valued aspect, it is not as top of mind for users as the other benefits like distance, comfort, and cost. This finding also points to potential areas for improvement, e.g., if reliability and safety were emphasized more by rail operators, these aspects might attract a larger share of passengers. Enhancing reliability, e.g., by ensuring punctuality and minimizing delays, could increase user satisfaction and encourage more people to prioritize this factor when choosing their mode of transportation.
Barriers involved long delays and waiting times, i.e., delayed schedules with 38.7% share, following unhygienic conditions of trains and overall railway infrastructure with 32.3%, non-availability of seats with 15.2%, and safety and security with 13.8%, which was the least concern among all. This implied that improved timings and schedules, punctuality, and hygienic conditions may improve the status of railways in the public eye. The results suggest that significant barriers to train travel stem from operational inefficiencies and poor maintenance. The most pressing issue is long delays and waiting times, which account for the concerns. This implies that the reliability of train schedules is a critical factor for passengers, and delays severely impact the attractiveness of rail travel. Passengers likely experience frustration when trains are delayed, especially for long-distance travel, where punctuality becomes even more essential for maintaining connections and time-sensitive plans.
This high percentage highlights the need for improvements in train scheduling, infrastructure, and traffic management to reduce delays and make the service more reliable. Regular delays not only inconvenience passengers but also erode trust in the system, making people less likely to choose trains as their preferred mode of transport. Following closely behind, unhygienic conditions of trains and railway infrastructure account for the concerns. This suggests that cleanliness is a significant factor influencing passenger satisfaction. Unhygienic conditions can include poorly maintained restrooms, dirty seats, littered compartments, or unclean waiting areas. This issue not only affects passengers’ comfort during their journey but also has broader implications for health and safety. Especially in the post-pandemic context, cleanliness has become even more important, and neglecting it can deter passengers from choosing trains. Improving the hygiene of train interiors and maintaining cleaner stations would likely enhance the public perception of train travel.
Non-availability of seats ranks third in the concerns. This indicates that capacity management is another barrier to using trains. Passengers may face difficulties in finding available seats, especially during peak hours or holiday seasons, leading to discomfort or the need to stand for long periods. Overbooking or inadequate seat management can create negative experiences for passengers. Ensuring enough trains or carriages, particularly during busy times, could help alleviate this issue and improve passenger satisfaction. Lastly, safety and security are noted as concerns by respondents, making it the least pressing issue compared to the others. While not as prominent, safety and security remain crucial, especially in terms of preventing theft, ensuring proper surveillance in stations, and protecting passengers from harm during their journey. The fact that it is the least cited concern suggests that passengers may feel relatively secure on trains, or it might reflect lower prioritization compared to operational and cleanliness issues.
Improving punctuality by addressing delayed schedules could drastically enhance user satisfaction. Efficient train operations, better traffic control systems, and regular updates on delays or cancellations could build confidence in the railway system. Regular cleaning schedules, upgrading sanitation facilities, and maintaining overall cleanliness at stations and on trains could lead to a more pleasant and healthier travel environment. Better capacity management through more frequent services or larger trains, especially during peak times, would reduce overcrowding and make the experience more comfortable. Though security was a lesser concern, maintaining or improving security measures like surveillance cameras, well-lit stations, and onboard safety personnel would continue to ensure that passengers feel safe during their journey.
In short, the data imply that train travel’s primary appeal lies in its suitability for long-distance journeys, where it offers more space, convenience, and basic amenities than road transport. However, there is room to improve its standing in terms of reliability, safety, and availability, which are currently less significant motivations for users. Also, addressing these barriers, primarily by focusing on timeliness and hygiene, can significantly improve the public’s perception of rail travel.
4.4. Passengers’ Satisfaction Regarding Station Facilities
The visual impact and available facilities at the station compel passengers, users, and visitors of the railway station to develop an opinion about the usage of the railway service to some extent. The station’s facilities were determined based on five variables, and responses were collected as Yes or No answers, as shown in Figure 4.
Access to arrival and departure information contributes to the reliability of service, and 68% of users were satisfied, whereas 32.3% were not. More than 50% of people were satisfied with the availability of the waiting room; however, 42% were not satisfied with the condition of maintenance of the waiting room.
More than half percent of users shared concerns regarding the absence of enough park-and-ride service, whereas 48.5% were satisfied with the availability. One-third of the users were unsatisfied with available ticket-issuing units, especially during busy hours; however, two-thirds percent were satisfied. This also indicates the lack of a digital ticket booking system, which is an important feature of an advanced railway system all around the world. An integrated transport system is always desirable; 30% of users were unsatisfied because of the absence of connected transport modes, which adds to traveling troubles, whereas one-third were not concerned about the connection between transport modes at all.
4.5. Satisfaction with Available Facilities within the Train
Figure 5 shows the satisfaction with the available facilities within the train and was assessed with the variables of punctuality, for which around 50% of users were satisfied, and the other 50% were not. The results for the travel information during the journey showed that 50% of users were not satisfied, whereas 45% were fine with that. In case of emergencies, such as fire, etc., around 50.8% were not satisfied with the provision of precautions taken and arrangements made to cope with such situations, whereas 49.2% were satisfied. A total of 53.5% of users were unsatisfied with the available and allocated seats in comparison to satisfied users, with a 46.5% share. A total of 30.5% of users were unsatisfied with the space available for luggage storage compared to 69.5%, who were satisfied users. It is quite evident that, on average, half of the users were satisfied whereas half were unsatisfied with the train’s available facilities.
4.6. Satisfaction with Available Customer Services
Figure 6 shows the customer services analyzed based on several variables. The attitudes and behaviors of ticketing staff toward customers showed that around 44.8% of users were unsatisfied, whereas 55.2% of users were satisfied. A total of 50.3% of users were unhappy with the efficiency of ticketing services, whereas 49.7% were satisfied. The variable of information provided by the ticketing staff showed that around one-third of users were unsatisfied, whereas two-thirds of users were satisfied. The safety of passengers and luggage are parameters of prime importance, for which 36.2% of users were unsatisfied with passenger safety and 40.3% were with luggage safety. In contrast, 63.8% of users were satisfied with passengers’ safety, whereas 59.7% were satisfied with luggage safety. It is important to note that the unsatisfied customers are in considerable numbers and are nearly half of the users, which shows that serious attention is required to such aspects.
4.7. Comparison between the Familiarity of Users with ICTs and Expectations of Betterment if ICTs Are Installed in Railways
Figure 7 shows how users were familiar with different ICTs and, if those ICTs were used as a part of the railway management system, then what users could expect from them to uplift the overall quality of the railway system. These ICTs involve digital maps, variable message signs, CCTV cameras, information applications on smartphones, and e-ticketing systems. It was observed that 64.2% of users were familiar with digital mapping, and, if installed, then 84.9% expected chances of betterment in the overall railway system. For VMS, 61.8% of users were already familiar, and, if installed, 80.4% expected improvement. For CCTV cameras, 77.7% were familiar with the technology, and, if installed in the system, then 88.8% expected chances of improvement in the system. Real-time information through smartphones showed that 82.8% of users were familiar with it, and 86.6% shared the expectation that the overall system would improve. Lastly, 74.3% of users were familiar with the e-ticketing system, and, if installed, the expectation was raised to 89.3% about the improved system. This shows that from peoples’ perspectives, the inclusion of ICTs in the system will improve the overall service quality of the railway system.
4.8. Factor Analysis
Exploratory factor analysis was conducted for respondents’ satisfaction with station and train facilities and customer care attributes. The principal component analysis (PCA) method was used for factor analysis. PCA is a widely used statistical technique that reduces the dimensions of data and simplifies it by transforming it into a set of uncorrelated components. The primary goal is to capture the most variance in the data using fewer components than the original variables. It achieves this by linearly combining the original features into components or factors, where the first component captures the maximum variance, and each subsequent component captures the remaining variance in a decreasing manner. It is widely used in transportation research, for noise reduction, data visualization, and preprocessing in machine learning, etc. PCA assumes linear relationships in data, making it less effective for capturing complex, non-linear patterns [38].
The variables with factor loading less than 0.5 were excluded from the model. A higher factor loading value is desirable for the inclusion of variables in the analysis, as it shows high internal consistency among respondents in the evaluation of indicators or observed variables. A variable with higher factor loading has more influence on explaining the corresponding factor or latent variable. The station facilities, like arrival and departure information of trains and availability of waiting rooms, have more factor loadings and have more influence on explaining the station facilities’ factors or components. The dimensions of punctuality, information provision, comfort of seat, and emergency management are influencing variables for the train facilities’ factor. The staff behavior and the safety of passengers and their belongings have significant influence on defining the customer car factor or component. These results are shown in Table 3. The percentage of variance explained by three factors of station facilities, train facilities, and customer care are 31.898, 35.966, and 42.084, respectively.
(2)
The expression to estimate values of Cronbach’s alpha is shown in Equation (1), but, in this research, it was performed by using SPSS 26 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). The alpha values explain the reliability of the extracted factor or component. A value of more than 0.5 shows a moderate level of reliability of the factors and mutual consistency among respondents in the evaluation [39].
Table 4 presents the results of factor analysis on ICT technologies and their benefits. The factor loadings of all the indicators or observed variables are more than 0.6, which indicates a good mutual consent among respondents in the evaluation. The percentage of variance explained by factors of Intelligent Transport System Technologies and benefits of ICTs are 44.979 and 46.328, respectively. The estimated values of Cronbach’s alpha are more than 0.5, which shows a good reliability of the factors and consistency among respondents in the evaluation.
4.9. Bivariate Correlations Analysis
Bivariate correlation analysis results are presented in Table 5 between extracted factors of Table 3 and Table 4 and respondents’ SEDs. Results show that the respondents’ occupation, education, purpose of the journey, and reasons to prefer rail service have a significant Pearson correlation with propensity to use train service. The occupation is positively related to the frequency of using trains. However, the education level, purpose of the journey, and reason for preferring train service over other modes have negative but very low correlations with the frequency of using train service. The purpose of the journey and class of bogie have positive but very low correlations with the station facilities factor. The reason for preferring rail service over other transport modes has a positive and low correlation with factors of station facilities, train facilities, and ICT technologies. The purpose of the journey has a positive and significant but very low correlation with all factors. Age, income, and education have significant correlations with the ICT technologies factor.
4.10. Ordered Logistic Regression Analysis
Ordinal regression analysis was conducted on passenger frequency for using train service. The parameters were estimated using the logit function. The observed variables were coded as Yes = 0 and No = 1 for regression analysis. All variables of station facilities, train facilities, information-related technology, and customer care were tested for significant correlation with passenger frequency with train service. The passenger usage frequency was introduced as an ordinal variable in the model. However, the insignificant variables were excluded from the model after thorough screening. The results of significant variables are presented in Table 6. Reasons to use train service were also coded as 0 for a particular reason, and anything else as 1. Only reliability as the main reason for using train service was found to have a significant correlation with the outcome variable. The estimate of reliability as a reason is positive and significant, which depicts that the people who believe that the train service is reliable more frequently use the train service, which has positive implications in making it more attractive for the users. Variables of station facilities such as ‘information regarding the arrival/departure of trains and platforms’ and ‘number of ticket counters’ have a significant correlation with usage likelihood. The variable of ‘information regarding the arrival/departure of trains and platforms’ has a positive estimate, which shows that the users who have a positive response to this aspect of station facilities have more propensity to use the service.
The users’ response on several ticket counters has a negative estimate, which elicits that the insufficiency of ticket counters results in lower satisfaction of customers and hence low propensity to use the service. The station facilities’ variable ‘connection with other modes of transport’ has a positive estimate of usage frequency. It shows that the users are satisfied with the connectivity of railway stations with the road network to ensure their proper accessibility of train service. The users who are satisfied with this intermodal connection have a high probability of using the service, as it makes travel more convenient. Good integration among transportation modes also helps to save travel time and improve the efficiency of the system.
The estimate of emergency management (fire extinguisher, emergency escape, first aid) variable with use frequency is negative and significant. It depicts that low satisfaction with incident management facilities in trains hurts the tendency to use the train service. The provision of fire extinguishers, emergency exits, and first aid facilities is essential to improve the safety dimensions of the train, as it will help to enhance the trust of the commuters using the train service. The negative signs of digital mapping systems and e-ticketing systems elicit that low satisfaction with such dimensions results in low frequency of using the train service. At present, the use of digital mapping is not common, and manual ticketing systems are also available, which causes inconvenience to the passengers. There is a need to provide real-time information and install e-ticketing systems at stations to improve users’ utility. The model fitting information is given in Table 6, which shows that the results are significant.
5. Discussion
The stated hypotheses were tested using the results of correlation analysis and ordinal logistic regression analysis. The correlation analysis indicates that there are some significant correlations between respondents’ socio-economic demographics and their travel frequency and perceptions about station facilities, train facilities, customer care, benefits, and ICT components (H1). However, this hypothesis was partially supported, as some of the correlations were insignificant. The results of ordinal regression analysis depict that the respondents’ satisfaction with some of the station and train facilities, such as reliability, information about arrival and departure, number of ticket counters, integration with other modes, and emergency management, have a significant impact on respondents’ likelihood to use the train service (H2). These results support the acceptance of hypothesis (H2) for the selection attributes of train and station facilities. The third hypothesis (H3) is partially supported by the ordinal regression analysis results, as the variables of the digital mapping system and e-ticketing system have a significant correlation with passengers’ travel likelihood with the train service.
Usually, intercity, fast-paced trains are socially exclusive [40,41], which was quite evident in this study, as the primary train users were younger adults aged between 18 and 25, were predominantly men, and middle-class individuals and students were the most significant users. However, though users with disabilities were low in number, data underscored the critical need for accessible and secure rail transport. Many studies have already focused on providing facilities of various kinds to accommodate passengers with disabilities, e.g., the height of steps, wheelchair ramps, specific provisions in the carriages, and mood-based feelings of passengers with disabilities towards railways services, etc. [27,41,42,43].
Passengers’ opinions about the railway station’s services were influenced by visual impacts and facilities, with varying satisfaction. Studies have also emphasized the importance of visual impacts of facilities and their positive relation with customer satisfaction [44,45]. Key concerns included insufficient park-and-ride services and the absence of integrated transport modes, with 30% of users eager for better connectivity. The integration of transport modes is necessary to improve the connectivity and accessibility of train services, as it will help to increase ridership. This aspect is usually missed in early plans until realized, and the case is no different in Lahore and other developing countries. In addition, a detailed catchment area for park-and-ride should be designed alongside [46,47,48].
Nearly half of the users were evenly split in their satisfaction level with train facilities, including punctuality, travel information, and emergency preparedness, with significant dissatisfaction levels regarding seat availability. Examining the history of railways in Pakistan, emergency preparedness is a point of serious concern, and technological advancements and implementation of ICTs can help substantially in this context [45,49]. Customers’ satisfaction in terms of security, safety, comfort, infrastructure quality, and ticket purchase facilities are the important factors involved in creating a demand for service [50,51,52].
Users were generally familiar with various ICTs, such as digital maps, VMS, CCTV, smartphones, and e-ticketing, with significant expectations for these technologies to improve the railway system. High familiarity with these technologies correlates with expectations for overall system improvements, indicating a positive perception of their potential impact on the overall system quality of railways. Other studies have also associated ICTs, passengers, and transportation modes; however, effective implementation strategies and political intention will be an additional aspect to see in the future [53,54].
The exploratory factor analysis using PCA revealed key influences on respondents’ satisfaction, including station facilities, like arrival/departure information and waiting rooms, and train facilities, including punctuality, seating comfort, and emergency management. Additionally, staff behavior and passenger safety significantly impact customer care. All indicators for ICTs showed strong agreement among respondents, with factor loadings exceeding 0.6.
The ordinal regression analysis reveals that reliability significantly boosts train usage frequency, highlighting its appeal to users. Positive correlations were found for station facilities, like arrival/departure information and connectivity with other transport modes, enhancing user satisfaction and likelihood of train use. Negative correlations for insufficient ticket counters and poor emergency management underscore the need for improvements in these areas to increase train service attractiveness and user trust. It is mentioned that to measure the transit service, especially in the context of familiarity with ICTs, perspective-based methods are important. Other studies have also shown that information, service quality attributes, and peoples’ perceptions have an impactful relationship. Factors that influence passengers’ experiences compel them to use the facility in the future too; however, the lack of other transportation modes’ options may not present an insight to opt for a specific mode [55,56].
These results provide important policy insights for the improvement in passengers’ satisfaction and experiences with the train service through improvement in various dimensions of train facilities, station design and facilities, customer care services, information and communication technologies, and perceived benefits associated with the ICTs. This study implies that there is a need to enhance the reliability attributes of the train service quality and users’ experience with the provision of required information. Various communication technologies, such as display screens, website information, announcements, schedule and route map display, etc., can be deployed to provide the necessary information to travelers. The increase in the number of ticket counters and e-ticketing system would help in improving the passenger ease of use of the train service. These attributes of station facilities will also help to save travel time. Also, the provision of emergency management facilities would help to improve the passengers’ satisfaction and experience with the train service. These facilities may include fire extinguishers, fire alarms, medical care, and first-aid facilities. These improvements, as well as other key dimensions of service quality and benefits associated with the provision of ICTs, would play an important part in improving the standards of railways and passenger satisfaction.
6. Conclusions
It is concluded that the importance of railways cannot be denied, especially where economic growth and developed infrastructure are of prime priority. This study has unveiled many critical aspects that require pre-hand planning, serious initiatives, and technological support to uplift the status of railways and their system components and improve user demand and customer satisfaction.
The main conclusion is that railways are massively used by younger adults of the age group 18–25, who are mainly males, graduate students, and belong to a middle socio-economic group. Ordinal regression analysis revealed that service reliability, arrival, and departure information, ticket counters and e-ticketing, and emergency management facilities are significant predictors of users’ likelihood to use the train service. With better service facilities related to travelers’ information, integration with other transport modes, technological exposure, special provisions for females and individuals with disabilities, and improved customer care, the circle of users can be extended to other socio-economic groups. This will increase the passenger demand, and travel frequency may switch from occasional to daily. Intercity railway services are used for long-distance travel, and it can be implied that with improved connectivity, ridership will increase for shorter-distance trips.
Safety/security, comfort, time efficiency, affordability, availability, reduced delays, unhygienic conditions, unavailability of seats, and reliability are considerable factors to improve to uplift the overall railway system. Passengers were usually satisfied with station facilities, but facilities within the train, such as availability of allocated seats, emergency management, detailed and frequent travel information, and train punctuality, were not sufficient from the passengers’ perspectives. Customers were almost fine with customer care services, such as the attitude and behavior of staff, the efficiency of the ticketing system, information provided by ticketing staff, and passenger and luggage safety; however, there is still a big space for improvement. Overall, users were familiar with ICTs (e-ticketing, smartphones, CCTV cameras, VMS, and digital maps). Users believed that upgraded railways with ICTs would assist them, and the overall system would improve. Advanced seat reservations, e-tickets, smartphone apps to track specific train routes, accurate timings for arrivals and departures, integrated travel modes/services, e.g., cabs, etc., park-and-ride services, discount cards, and other similar measures, will develop the railway system.
Therefore, it is recommended that railways should be upgraded with advanced ICTs in true letter and spirit and should be monitored and upgraded periodically. Multiple stakeholders should be taken onboard to make plans and develop practical strategies that can benefit the wider society, especially underprivileged groups. Political will is of the utmost importance to set up goals and achieve them with clear objectives and required funds. This study is useful for various sectors and stakeholders who can effectively play their part in uplifting railways, which are an asset and deserve to be utilized at their maximum potential.
Future studies will focus on specific aspects of railway system upgradation, such as integration with other traffic modes and their impacts on ridership. As this is one of the pioneer studies in the region to reflect the status of Pakistan railways, which is similar to many other evolving economies in Asia, the biggest limitation was historical data to analyze various variables that were involved in this study. This study uses a sample size from one of the railway junctions of the intercity railway for deriving the conclusions based on a limited sample size. The samples from other cities would provide a deeper understanding of the perceptions of travelers about ICTs and their usefulness in the context of Pakistan. The large sample size will also allow comparisons among respondents in different socio-economic groups. This study included only a few characteristics of train service and stations; therefore, future studies should focus on evaluating the satisfaction of passengers with other spatial, temporal, travel time and cost, and access characteristics of service quality for better implications of policy interventions. Despite these limitations, the findings of this study have useful policy insights for providing directions to the concerned authorities to make necessary improvements and integrate information and communication technologies in the railway system. This integration will enhance the users’ satisfaction and experience with the railway service.
Conceptualization, I.A.; Methodology, M.I.Y. and M.F.; Software, M.A.J.; Validation, N.A. and S.S.; Formal analysis, I.A., M.A.J. and M.I.Y.; Investigation, M.F. and S.S.; Resources, M.I.Y., N.A. and Q.H.; Writing—original draft, I.A. and M.I.Y.; Writing—review & editing, I.A., M.A.J., M.F., N.A., S.S. and Q.H.; Visualization, Q.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
This is a non-intervention study and did not collect any personal identifying details of the participants. Therefore, ethical approval was waived for this research by the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. All methods were carried out following the relevant guidelines and regulations of the university. The participation of respondents was voluntary in this study. This study used verbal informed consent from the participants after explaining the purpose and contents of the survey. Also, written consent was not required from the participants in the study as per the above university policy.
Verbal informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in this study.
Data will be made available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
We extend our sincere appreciation to all the experts from various institutions who generously spared their time, expertise, and candid opinions in this study.
The authors declare no conflict of interest in this submission.
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Travel frequency (a), trip purpose (b), and traveling class (c) distribution of railway system users.
Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Travel frequency (a), trip purpose (b), and traveling class (c) distribution of railway system users.
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. Passengers’ satisfaction with the available facilities within the train.
Enlarge this image.Figure 7. Comparative distribution of different ICTs regarding familiarity and installations.
Details of variables, types of variables, and categories of variables for which data were collected.
| Variable | Variable | Categories |
|---|---|---|
| Age | Categorical | 18–25, 26–30, 31–35, 36–40, 41–55 and >55 |
| Gender | Categorical | Male, Female and Transgender |
| Occupation | Categorical | Student, Own Business, Govt. sector and Private sector |
| Education | Categorical | Primary, Secondary Intermediate, Bachelor, Postgraduate, and None of the above |
| Do you have any disability? | Binary | Yes or No |
| How often do you travel by train? | Ordinal | Never, Occasionally, Daily, Weekly, Monthly |
| Purpose of a journey through the train. | Categorical | Education, Work, Recreation, Medical/Health |
| In which class of bogies do you want to travel? | Categorical | Economy, AC lower/Standard, AC Business, Parlor car |
| Why do you prefer rail service compared to other modes of transport? | Categorical | Reliability, Availability, Timesaving, Comfort, Safety/Security, Long distance travel |
| Why do you not travel by train? | Categorical | Non-availability of seats, Safety/Security, |
| Station Facilities | Binary | Yes or No |
| Train Facilities | Binary | Yes or No |
| Customer Care | Binary | Yes or No |
| Are you familiar with the following technologies and their purpose? | Binary | Yes or No |
| Do you think these technologies will benefit you? | Binary | Yes or No |
Information regarding users’ information and socio-economic aspects.
| Variables | Categories | Distribution (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Age | 18–25 | 61.3 |
| 26–30 | 11.6 | |
| 31–35 | 7.8 | |
| 36–40 | 9.0 | |
| 41–55 | 7.8 | |
| >55 | 2.5 | |
| Gender | Male | 66.0 |
| Female | 33.2 | |
| Occupation | Student | 54.6 |
| Own business | 14.0 | |
| Govt. Sector | 18.0 | |
| Private sector | 13.5 | |
| Income | ˂15,000 Rs. ($55) | 35.1 |
| 15,000–50,000 Rs. ($55–$180) | 42.0 | |
| 50,000–100,000 Rs. ($180–$360) | 13.5 | |
| >100,000 Rs. ($360) | 9.5 | |
| Education | Did not attend school | 2.3 |
| Primary | 2.5 | |
| Secondary | 11.4 | |
| Intermediate | 23.5 | |
| Bachelor’s | 38.5 | |
| Postgraduate | 21.8 | |
| Disability | No | 96.6 |
| Yes | 3.4 |
Factor loadings for the satisfaction characteristics.
| Observed Variable | Station Facilities | Train Facilities | Customer Care |
|---|---|---|---|
| Information regarding the arrival/departure of trains and platforms | 0.684 | ||
| Availability of waiting rooms | 0.641 | ||
| Availability of park-and-ride facility | 0.558 | ||
| Number of ticket counters | 0.532 | ||
| Punctuality, i.e., trains arriving and departing on time. | 0.755 | ||
| Provision of information during the journey (current location, upcoming station) | 0.695 | ||
| Emergency management (fire extinguisher, emergency escape, first aid) | 0.601 | ||
| Comfort of seats (special seat for disabled/wheelchair) | 0.558 | ||
| Attitude and helpfulness, behavior of ticketing staff | 0.710 | ||
| Safety of passengers, self-safety | 0.688 | ||
| Safety of belongings | 0.685 | ||
| Efficiency of ticketing system | 0.590 | ||
| Information provided by ticketing staff | 0.556 | ||
| % of variance explained | 31.989 | 35.966 | 42.084 |
| Cronbach’s alpha | 0.549 | 0.533 | 0.653 |
Factor loadings for the ICT technologies and benefits.
| Observed Variable | Intelligent Transport System Technologies | Benefits of ICTs |
|---|---|---|
| Digital mapping system | 0.789 | |
| Smartphones | 0.704 | |
| CCTV cameras | 0.689 | |
| Variable message signs | 0.661 | |
| Digital mapping system | 0.748 | |
| Variable message signs | 0.730 | |
| CCTV cameras | 0.673 | |
| e-ticketing system | 0.623 | |
| Smartphones | 0.618 | |
| % of variance explained | 44.979 | 46.328 |
| Cronbach’s alpha | 0.685 | 0.709 |
Results of Pearson correlation coefficients for travel frequency, satisfaction components, and benefits.
| SEDs | How Often Do You Travel by Train? | Station Facilities | Train Facilities | Customer Care | Intelligent Transport System Technologies | Benefits |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 0.098 | 0.039 | 0.131 ** | 0.089 | 0.145 *** | −0.101 |
| Gender | −0.102 | 0.004 | −0.047 | −0.010 | −0.044 | 0.35 |
| Occupation | 0.153 *** | −0.031 | 0.175 *** | 0.116 ** | 0.071 | −0.054 |
| Monthly income | 0.088 | −0.057 | 0.039 | 0.061 | 0.129 ** | 0.102 |
| Education | −0.132 ** | −0.060 | 0.034 | −0.083 | −0.141 *** | −0.113 ** |
| Do you have any disability? | −0.051 | 0.015 | −0.117 ** | −0.091 | −0.089 | 0.017 |
| Purpose of the journey on the train? | −0.152 *** | 0.119 ** | 0.157 *** | 0.128 ** | 0.117 ** | 0.136 *** |
| In which class of bogies do you want to travel? | 0.061 | 0.107 ** | 0.107 ** | 0.014 | −0.041 | 0.139 *** |
| Why do you prefer rail service compared to other modes of transport? | −0.144 *** | 0.237 *** | 0.237 *** | 0.155 *** | 0.256 *** | 0.003 |
| How often do you travel by train? | - | −0.127 ** | −0.007 | −0.051 | −0.103 | 0.054 |
Note: *** significant at the 1%, ** significant at the 5%.
Results of ordered logit model for usage frequency of train service.
| Observed Variables with Coding | Estimate | Std. Error | Wald | Sig. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Reliability as a reason to use train service (reliability: 0, else: 1) | 0.838 | 0.264 | 10.071 | 0.002 |
| Information regarding the arrival/departure of trains and platforms (Satisfied: 0, not satisfied: 1) | 0.645 | 0.253 | 6.487 | 0.011 |
| Number of ticket counters (Satisfied: 0, not satisfied: 1) | −0.948 | 0.252 | 14.184 | 0.000 |
| Connection with other modes of transport (Satisfied: 0, not satisfied: 1) | 0.912 | 0.252 | 13.080 | 0.000 |
| Emergency management (fire extinguisher, emergency escape, first aid) (Satisfied: 0, not satisfied: 1) | −0.628 | 0.238 | 6.976 | 0.008 |
| Digital mapping system (yes: 0, no: 1) | −0.539 | 0.245 | 4.835 | 0.028 |
| e-ticketing system (yes: 0, no: 1) | −0.494 | 0.263 | 3.543 | 0.060 |
| Model Fitting Information | ||||
| Model | −2 Log Likelihood | Chi-Square | df | Significance |
| Intercept Only | 445.061 | |||
| Final | 387.041 | 58.020 | 0.000 | |
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; Muhammad Ashraf Javid 2
; Muhammad Irfan Yousuf 3 ; Farooq, Muhammad 4 ; Nazam Ali 5
; Suparp, Suniti 6
; Hussain, Qudeer 7 1 Department of Transportation Engineering and Management, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan;
2 Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, Sohar 311, Oman;
3 Department of Computer Science, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan
4 Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Al Khobar 34754, Saudi Arabia;
5 School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Portsmouth, Lion Gate Building, Lion Terrace, Portsmouth PO1 3HF, UK
6 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Srinakharinwirot University, Nakhonnayok 26120, Thailand;
7 Civil Engineering Department, Kasem Bunding University, Bangkok, 10510, Thailand;