Exploring Video Game Engagement, Social–Emotional Development, and Adolescent Well-Being for Sustainable Health and Quality Education

Abstract

This study addresses the relationship between the use of video games and social–emotional learning in adolescents, in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations, highlighting SDG 3 (Health and Well-being) and SDG 4 (Quality Education). The Video Game Experiences Questionnaire (VGEQ) was administered to 1146 high school students in Extremadura, Spain, aged 12 to 18 (M = 14.51; SD = 1.57). The VGEQ assessed dependence, negative consequences, and emotional experiences. The results highlighted significant gender differences, with men showing greater dependence and negative consequences related to video games than women. Furthermore, differences were observed by age, with more notable effects in late adolescents. A valuation was found between emotions such as unhappiness, fear, and anger and dependence and negative consequences. This study highlights the complex relationship between video game use, dependence, negative consequences, and emotions in adolescents, with important implications for the well-being and education of young people. Recognizing gender and age disparities underscores the need for a nuanced approach to addressing the social–emotional effects of video games in line with the United Nations SDGs 3 and 4.

1. Introduction

In the contemporary era, the use of video games has transcended the boundaries of mere fun and entertainment, becoming a form of cultural and technological interaction that spans a wide range of individuals, from young people to adults [1]. As the popularity of video games continues to rise, so does the interest in understanding their implications beyond the realm of leisure. The relationship between video game usage and the social–emotional development process by which people acquire and apply social and emotional skills throughout their lives includes the development of emotional awareness, emotional regulation, social skills, empathy, decision making, and the management of interpersonal relationships. This aspect of human development, which encompasses the ability to understand and express emotions, establish and maintain healthy relationships, resolve conflicts constructively, and make informed decisions as individuals [2,3], has been the subject of study by researchers, educators, and mental health professionals [4,5,6,7,8]. Despite different opinions, research continues to be conducted to better understand the relationship between video game usage and the social–emotional development process. Video games can have positive impacts on individuals’ social–emotional development [9,10,11]. For instance, it has been found that video games can foster the development of social skills, such as cooperation and communication, especially in online multiplayer games where players must work together to achieve common objectives [12,13,14,15,16,17,18].

Furthermore, video games can provide an escape or a way to manage stress and anxiety [17,19]. By immersing themselves in a virtual world, players can experience emotions and situations that may help them process their own feelings and confront challenges in a safe manner [8,20,21]. On the other hand, concerns have also been raised that excessive or problematic video game use could have negative effects on social–emotional development [22,23], as well as mental health problems such as sleep disorders, disruptive behavior, and/or social isolation [24,25,26]. It is important to note that the relationship between video games and social–emotional development is complex and multifaceted. Online interaction and cooperation in multiplayer games can promote empathy and effective communication among players [27]. Additionally, certain video games feature emotionally rich plots and narratives that can allow players to explore and understand diverse emotions [28]. However, it has been observed that social–emotional development can act as a moderating variable in the development of dependence on new technologies [29].

In the context of video game usage, evasion is configured as a mechanism involving the diversion of the individual’s attention toward the intrinsic and extrinsic elements of the game, with the purpose of distancing oneself from adverse or uncomfortable emotional states [30,31]. This behavioral response can be interpreted as an attempt at emotional self-regulation, in which the individual seeks to mitigate the intensity of aversive or unwanted emotions by engaging in an immersive virtual experience [19,32]. Through this action, the goal is to create a momentary dissociation between experiential reality and the underlying emotional context, thereby allowing for a temporal space of emotional relief and potentially cognitive restructuring of triggering factors [19,33,34]. Several studies have proposed that emotional evasion in the context of video games can have ambivalent effects on long-term emotional well-being. While this strategy can provide momentary relief and allow for redirection of attention toward pleasurable and rewarding activities, it could also postpone the necessary confrontation and processing of underlying emotions in reality. In this sense, evasion might be considered an adaptive mechanism for managing immediate emotions, but its persistent use without subsequent comprehensive emotional exploration and management could result in deficient long-term emotional regulation [35]. Thus, the importance of social–emotional development arises in the context of learning through video games [36].

Other studies, such as the one conducted by [37], have highlighted that video game usage is not only related to improvements in learning but is also associated with an increase in positive emotions among students, while negative emotions decrease. Coincidentally, previous research like the study by [38] has also pointed out that positive emotions tend to manifest during practical learning, in contrast to negative emotions that are more frequently experienced during theoretical learning. Other authors similarly asserted that playful activities, as implemented in this context, generate positive emotions among students and contribute to the learning process [37]. These precedents lay the foundation for further exploration in our study, which focuses on how video games can contribute to the promotion of social–emotional skills in adolescents, aligning with Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 3 (Health and Well-being) and SDG 4 (Quality Education) [39,40].

• Connecting with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Digital games for health purposes represent novel and potentially effective approaches to fostering health-related outcomes, knowledge, skills, and behaviors in adolescents. Recently, the authors of [41] published a study on designing a digital game intervention that reinforces social–emotional skills and promotes prosocial behaviors in children aged 8 to 11, particularly in crisis situations like the COVID-19 pandemic. While digital game interventions and the application of behavior change theory yield mixed results, the Intervention Mapping Protocol (IMP) addresses this limitation. By detailing the IMP process, the study provides guidelines for creating future theory-based games, culminating in a co-designed prototype with input from stakeholders and feedback from children.

• Emphasizing Educational Impact

Enhancing social–emotional skills is crucial for the well-being and growth of adolescents, while also serving as a safeguard against mental disorders and maladaptation [42]. In the feasibility study of “Emotion Detectives” conducted by [43], the possibility of cultivating prosocial behaviors in adolescents, developing emotional recognition skills, and addressing social–emotional challenges were explored. The obtained results indicated that through interaction with game characters, adolescents effectively acquired social–emotional skills. Additionally, according to [44], researchers conducted a randomized controlled trial using the prosocial game “Jesse” with youths aged 9 to 17. The results of this study showed a significant increase in affective responses toward victims of partner violence, suggesting that prosocial video games have the potential to foster social–emotional skills in educational settings. On the other hand, social skills training programs that incorporated games in randomized control designs have demonstrated effectiveness in advancing impulse control, emotional regulation, and social initiation skills in children. Furthermore, ref. [45] demonstrated how a game-based approach improved social behavior and social–emotional skills compared with the control group. The results underscore the contribution of games to social–emotional development and their impact on crucial skills like social self-efficacy. However, the need for more research is emphasized to better understand the role of health and education-related approaches in social growth and adolescent well-being.

• Research Contribution to Sustainable Development

The notion that video games can evoke emotional reactions in players is undoubtedly a general consensus. Despite this, experts in the field of video games differ on the specifics of how video games trigger these emotions, how players manage such emotional responses, and how emotions aroused by video games influence future decisions [46]. Following the taxonomy of game features by [47], three key opportunities are identified. The first pertains to manipulation and control within the game, such as saving progress to correct mistakes and managing multiple resources, which can foster a sense of mastery and control. Controlled exposure to negative emotional stimuli in video games can train emotional reappraisal skills, which are crucial for emotional growth. Furthermore, negative emotions experienced while playing, such as frustration, sadness, or fear, can have positive effects by driving the overcoming of challenges. The interactivity of video games, characterized as the “art of failure”, motivates the player to surpass obstacles and manage emotional responses, contributing to emotional maturity.

In the same vein, ref. [48,49] evaluated the impact of the “Spock” video game on emotional intelligence and psychosocial adjustment in Spanish adolescents. The results demonstrated improvements in the intervention group, highlighting the positive contribution of video games to social–emotional development. In a similar approach, ref. [50] explored the effect of the “Isolated” game on the subjective well-being and mental health of adolescents, noting significant enhancements in quality of life. Furthermore, studies like that of [48] emphasize how the player experience in multiplayer games like “Fortnite” can influence prosocial behavior and social–emotional development in adolescents. On the other hand, a study by [51] explored how immersive and educational video games can reduce psychological distance and raise awareness about environmental issues, specifically plastic pollution [8]. Although the literature tends to focus on climate change rather than plastic pollution, research has shown that video games can be effective in reducing perceived psychological distance and motivating pro-environmental actions.

These investigations demonstrate that video games have the potential to be effectively employed in promoting social–emotional well-being. However, a lack of integration persists and there is a need for research that unifies concepts related to social–emotional development from previous studies and players’ experiences [52]. This deficiency is revealed as an essential focus for the creation of video games that enrich social–emotional competencies. The absence of this perspective solidifies a gap in the literature, underscoring the pressing need to understand how to conceive such experiences, especially in educational contexts, in order to link the academic environment with extracurricular competencies, social–emotional development, and video games. This becomes crucial in the pursuit of sustainable development, as it can have a significant impact on the well-being and quality of education of adolescents.

In this context, it is crucial to highlight that, while we recognize the positive potential of video games in promoting social–emotional well-being, our research focuses specifically on the negative consequences of their use. This choice is not intended to minimize the benefits that video games can bring; rather, it seeks to address an existing gap in the academic literature.

The lack of integration and sufficient attention to the negative implications of video games on social–emotional development has persisted in existing research [22,23]. Our decision to explore these adverse repercussions is based on the need to fill this gap and contribute to a more complete understanding of the impact of video games and adolescent development.

The Present Study

The fundamental purpose of this study was to carry out an analysis of the relationship between dependence on the use of video games, the negative consequences associated with said use, and the emotional patterns that can act as mediators in this relationship. Additionally, we sought to evaluate how sociodemographic variables, such as gender and age, may influence these processes. That is, is there a relationship between the use of video games, the negative consequences associated with this use, and the mediating emotional patterns, considering the influence of sociodemographic variables such as gender and age?

This research approach not only focuses on the analysis of the specific dimensions of the relationship between video games and social–emotional development but also directly aligns with global efforts to promote health (SDG 3) and education of quality (SDG 4). We recognize that understanding how variables related to video game engagement can influence the development of key social–emotional skills in children and adolescents is essential to advancing the achievement of these broader goals of well-being and education. Our study aims to shed light on these complex interactions, thereby contributing to a more complete understanding of how video game experiences can have a significant impact on health promotion and the quality of education in contemporary youth.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

The sample comprised 1146 adolescents randomly selected, with 57.4% males and 42.6% females. The average age was 14.46 years (SD = 1.60). Participants were categorized into three groups based on their stage of adolescence: 32% in early adolescence, 65.5% in middle adolescence, and 2.4% in late adolescence. We employed intentional non-probabilistic sampling for participant selection. Inclusion criteria encompassed ages ranging from 12 to 18 years, engagement in video game use on any platform (consoles, computers, mobile devices, etc.), and obtaining informed parental consent.

2.2. Instruments

We employed the Video Game-Related Experiences Questionnaire (VGEQ see Supplementary Materials) [53], consisting of 17 items measuring various dimensions such as concern, denial, tolerance enhancement, expression of negative affect, reduction in activity, loss of control, evasion, and desire to engage in the game. Responses were recorded on a Likert scale, ranging from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always). The questionnaire comprised two factors: psychological dependency and evasion and negative consequences, demonstrating strong overall reliability (Cronbach’s alpha coefficient = 0.89). The VGEQ focused mainly on measuring negative emotions related to the video game experience, analyzing psychological dependence and avoidance. This was carried out with the purpose of exploring in detail the negative dimensions and their effects, although it does not exclude the possibility of positive emotions being experienced during the game. This choice is based on the relevance of negative emotions in the context of video game use and their impact on daily life.

Types of video games: This study focused on a wide variety of video games without specific restrictions regarding their content. Video games of different genres were selected, including those that could be considered violent or that present a higher risk of developing dependency. To capture additional sociodemographic data, we administered an initial questionnaire. Key variables included gender (female and male) and age ranges subdivided into early adolescence (12 to 13 years), middle adolescence (14 to 17 years), and late adolescence (18 years and older) [54]. The choice of these groups is justified by the variability in the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur in each of these stages, which can significantly influence the behavior and experiences of adolescents. The division into these groups allows for a more detailed exploration of how the characteristics and needs of adolescents evolve throughout their development. Additionally, three items explored emotional dimensions, addressing the frequency of feelings of unhappiness, discouragement, crying, presence of fears, and susceptibility to anger or emotional outbursts: “Often feels unhappy, discouraged, or tearful”, “Frequently has tantrums or fits of anger”, and “Has many fears, gets easily scared”.

2.3. Procedure

This study employed a descriptive correlational and cross-sectional design. As for the procedure, comprehensive information about secondary education centers in Cáceres and Badajoz, as well as the number of students, was initially gathered from the local authorities of the Education Council of Extremadura. From this compilation, a random selection of 8 schools was made, and once access permission was obtained, questionnaires were administered to all classes in each institution. In situations where there were multiple streams per year (e.g., a, b, and c), a random choice was made. Regarding the demographic composition of the final sample, 51.8% of students came from rural areas, while 48.2% belonged to urban environments. Concerning school affiliation, 53.7% attended state schools, while 46.3% attended state-subsidized institutions. Informed consent was obtained from the parents of underage participants. Participants completed the questionnaires anonymously, with a researcher and teacher present to provide clarifications in case of any questions or doubts. Sociodemographic data were collected through self-administered questionnaires. The data were quantitatively analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical techniques.

Ethical and professional protocols were followed to safeguard the rights of participants, including aspects of privacy and personal data protection, in accordance with the Organic Law 3/2018 of 5 December 2018.

2.4. Data Analysis

To conduct the relevant analyses, the statistical software SPSS v.28 (IBM) was used. Firstly, a descriptive analysis of the sociodemographic variables was performed, using mean and standard deviation for quantitative variables, while frequencies and percentages were used for qualitative variables. Secondly, to analyze whether there are differences in negative consequences and dependency based on gender, an independent sample t-test was conducted, while for different age groups, a one-way ANOVA test was used. To study the relationship between the quantitative variables in the study, the Pearson correlation test was employed. Lastly, to analyze and determine which variables significantly explain or predict dependency and negative consequences, a stepwise multiple linear regression test was utilized. The confidence level employed in all statistical tests was 95%.

3. Results

Table 1 presents the results and scores obtained for negative consequences and dependency in relation to gender. The results reveal statistically significant differences between the male and female groups in terms of psychological dependency and evasion (t (1133.8) = 15.20; p < 0.05), as well as in negative consequences (t (1143.7) = 11.32; p < 0.05). Notably, higher dependency on video game usage and more pronounced negative consequences were observed in the male group compared with the female group. These differences exhibit a substantial effect size, as calculated using Cohen’s d test.

Regarding the age groups, based on the results obtained from the one-way ANOVA test, (see Table 2) significant differences were observed in the dimension related to negative consequences (F (2; 1143) = 4.47; p < 0.05). However, no significant differences were found in the dimension of psychological dependency and evasion (F (2; 1143) = 2.65; p < 0.05).

After discovering the existence of differences among the three age groups in terms of negative consequences, post hoc comparisons were conducted using the Tukey test to contrast the differences between each pair of means in that dimension (see Table 3). The results reveal significant differences between the late adolescence group and both the early adolescence group and the middle adolescence group. It is important to note that the late adolescence group exhibits the most pronounced negative consequences, indicating a higher level of social isolation and/or mental health deterioration. On the other hand, no significant differences were observed between the middle and early adolescence groups (p > 0.05).

In the Pearson correlation test (see Table 4), a significant relationship was found between psychological dependence and emotions related to “Often feels unhappy, discouraged, or tearful” (r = 0.102; r2 = 0.01; p < 0.05), as well as with the variable “Frequently has tantrums or fits of anger” (r = 0.117; r2 = 0.01; p < 0.05). On the other hand, the dimension of negative consequences also shows a significant relationship with both variables of the study: “Often feels unhappy, discouraged, or tearful” (r = 0.172; r2 = 0.02; p < 0.05) and with the variable “Frequently has tantrums or fits of anger” (r = 0.113; r2 = 0.01; p < 0.05). These relationships, although of low magnitude, follow a positive direction, indicating that as psychological dependence and negative consequences increase, feelings of sadness and manifestations of tantrums and fits of anger also increase. However, the variable “Has many fears, gets easily scared” did not show a significant relationship with any of the dimensions of the study (see Table 4).

To study the predictive nature of the emotional variables (temper tantrums or fits of anger, fears, and unhappiness), as well as the sociodemographic variables of the study, namely gender and age, in relation to psychological dependence and avoidance, and negative consequences, a stepwise multiple linear regression analysis was conducted.

Regarding the fulfillment of assumptions of non-collinearity and independence, assessed through tolerance and VIF tests and the Durbin–Watson statistic, respectively, it was found that these assumptions are met for both variables of the study. The tolerance statistic shows values above 0.20 and VIF values below 5, while the Durbin–Watson values are approximately 1.89 for the psychological dependence variable and 1.93 for the negative consequences dimension.

The psychological dependence variable achieved an adjusted R-squared value of 0.256, indicating that the variables ultimately included in the model (see Table 5)—gender, temper tantrums, or fits of anger, unhappiness, and fears—predict or explain 25.6% of psychological dependence. In all variables, positive coefficients were observed, except for the gender variable, indicating that as psychological dependence increases, so does unhappiness, fears, and manifestations of temper tantrums or fits of anger, particularly among male participants.

In relation to the variable of negative consequences (see Table 5), consistent findings with dependence were obtained. The adjusted R-squared coefficient for this variable is 0.201, indicating that the incorporated variables (gender, temper tantrums, or fits of anger, unhappiness, and fears) are capable of predicting or explaining 20.1% of the variability in negative consequences. Here, it is evident that as negative consequences intensify, males exhibit higher scores in the variables of unhappiness, temper tantrums or fits of anger, and fears.

4. Discussion

The purpose of this present study was to analyze the relationship between dependence, negative consequences, and video game usage, considering emotions as mediators, while also evaluating the impact of sociodemographic variables such as gender and age. Furthermore, this study aimed to identify profiles of participants exhibiting higher levels of dependence and greater negative consequences based on the aforementioned sociodemographic characteristics.

This study yielded significant results concerning psychological dependence, escapism, negative consequences, and video game usage. The findings highlight a trend toward greater dependence and negative effects among males compared with females. These disparities suggest that gender might play a relevant role in the relationship with video game usage. These findings align with research such as the study conducted by [55,56,57,58], which found significant gender-related differences in video game usage, with a higher prevalence of this activity among males. Overall, it was observed that 56.5% of participants exhibited low psychological dependence.

Within the context of the examined age groups in this study, significant differences were identified in relation to the experienced negative consequences among participants. This observation suggests the potential influence of age on the manifestation of these consequences. In contrast, no significant differences were evident in terms of psychological dependence and escapism, which could imply a certain homogeneity in these dimensions regardless of age variation. These results align with prior research, such as the study carried out by [59], which asserts that both gender and age exert influence on video game usage patterns among youth. Specifically, it is highlighted that during the adolescence stage, the profile of the most active player tends to be male and under 16 years old [60,61]. Likewise, although a decrease in the time spent playing video games is usually observed in late adolescence, if this decrease does not occur, dysfunctional and maladaptive behaviors that are linked to mental health problems tend to appear [59]. These findings underscore the relevance of considering both age and gender factors when addressing the analysis of video game usage among the youth population, which is essential to understanding how preferences and usage patterns can influence the promotion of sustainable lifestyles (Goal 4.7, SDGs) [39].

Discernible differences were noted in the experienced negative consequences among the various examined age groups. The results revealed that the late adolescence group exhibited more pronounced negative consequences, which could hint at a higher susceptibility to social isolation or potential social–emotional and mental health repercussions. On the other hand, no significant differences were observed between the middle and early adolescence groups, suggesting a certain similarity in the effects during these stages. These findings are consistent with previous research [59], as well as highlighted by [62], where it was found that video games do not seem to have a substantial impact on the social or emotional integration of participants. Although video games represent a group activity that occupies a significant portion of teenagers’ free time, the majority do not perceive them to trigger social or emotional isolation, as observed in the findings of [63]. These studies reaffirm the complexity of the relationship between video games and social–emotional aspects in the adolescent population.

Significant relationships were established between psychological dependence and the emotions of sadness and irritability in this study. Similarly, it was found that negative consequences also have a significant relationship with these emotions. Although these associations have a modest magnitude, they indicate a positive trend, suggesting that an increase in psychological dependence and negative consequences correlates with higher levels of sadness and manifestations of irritability. However, no significant relationship was observed between the variable “Has many fears, gets easily scared” and the dimensions evaluated in the study. This scenario aligns with previous research, such as the work by [64], which found that video game usage is not significantly linked to levels of negative emotions. It is relevant to consider the prospective findings of [65] in this line: they identified that low social competence, lower empathy, and difficulties in emotional regulation were risk factors for developing video game usage over a two-year period, while depression, anxiety, social phobia, and poor academic performance emerged as consequences of the same [65]. These results contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between emotions and video game dependence.

In terms of how emotional and sociodemographic variables influenced psychological dependence, escapism, and negative consequences due to video game usage, the results suggest that these variables can predict a significant portion of the variability in dependence and negative consequences. Overall, there was a positive relationship between dependence and factors such as unhappiness, fears, and tantrums, especially in males. Negative consequences were also related to these factors, showing that as they increase, unhappiness, tantrums, and fears also increase, particularly in males. Additional research focused on the nature of video games has explored more deeply how violent games compared with non-aggressive ones can influence players’ emotional responses. In a study by [66], it was found that playing violent games can trigger an increase in vocal stress compared with non-aggressive games. This observation is supported by research involving violent online games, which also demonstrated an increase in stress levels and the expression of tantrums. However, it is crucial to highlight that this stress-inducing activation from violent games may have a long-term stress-channeling characteristic, resulting in a decrease in overall hostility and stress, as observed in studies such as those by [67]. Despite their ability to induce stress, violent games have also been noted as possible facilitators of emotions, both positive and negative, as suggested in research by [68]. These observations support the idea that emotional experience in video games is not limited to a single direction but can involve a range of emotional responses, some of which may be contradictory in certain contexts.

Aligned with current research trends, this study underscores the need for a more comprehensive approach to assessing the effects of video games on youth. In addition to their influence on social–emotional development, it is crucial to recognize that video games can also impact adolescents’ mental health and well-being. The gender and age differences found point to the importance of developing personalized intervention and educational strategies to address these differences and promote healthy video game use.

On the other hand, the lack of a significant relationship with the variable “Has many fears, gets easily scared” suggests that specific emotions and characteristics may interact differently with experiences related to video games. This highlights the complexity of emotional and psychological factors involved in the relationship between adolescents and video games, which has important implications for intervention and educational strategy design.

This study aligns with the United Nations SDGs, specifically SDG 3 (Health and Well-being) and SDG 4 (Quality Education) [39]. Our research findings highlight the importance of understanding how video game use can impact adolescents’ mental health and well-being, as well as their social–emotional development and access to quality education. SDGs 3 and 4 focus on promoting people’s health and well-being, as well as ensuring inclusive and equitable education for all. Our results suggest that video game use may have significant implications in these aspects, underscoring the need to address this issue comprehensively and develop personalized educational and intervention strategies to promote healthy video game use among adolescents. Likewise, the information from the present study can be used by video game developers to develop games that are less harmful to the health of adolescents. In this sense, video games with potential relaxing effects have been found [69].

A primary limitation of this study is the use of self-reports to collect data, which could introduce social desirability bias. However, the substantial sample size and the use of a validated scale to measure video game-related experiences helped mitigate this potential bias. Additionally, this study has a cross-sectional design, which prevents establishing causal relationships between variables.

5. Conclusions

This study aimed to analyze the relationship between video game dependence, negative consequences, and emotions in adolescents, considering sociodemographic factors.

This study contributes to current trends in research on how video games support or limit social–emotional development in adolescents. The observed differences in the dimensions of psychological dependence, escapism, and negative consequences between genders and age groups highlight the importance of considering emotional and gender impacts in the relationship between video games and mental health. These findings suggest that video games can influence adolescents’ emotions, such as unhappiness and tantrums, which in turn correlate with dependence and negative consequences.

The fundamental role of gender in the dynamics of video game addiction among adolescents can be summarized as follows: Boys exhibit higher levels of dependency and face more pronounced negative consequences compared with adolescent girls. This finding underscores the need to recognize and address gender differences when treating video game addiction in youth.

The role of age in the negative consequences of video game use in adolescents can be summarized as follows: We identified substantial differences between adolescent age groups. Adolescents in the late adolescence stage are more likely to experience negative consequences related to their video game use. This highlights the importance of considering the factor of developmental stage when examining these dynamics.

The influence of emotions and the relationship between dependence on video games and their negative consequences can be summarized as follows: We demonstrated the influence of emotions, particularly sadness and irritability, on the relationship between video game dependence and negative consequences. As adolescents experience higher levels of dependency and negative consequences, they also experience higher levels of sadness and irritability, especially male adolescents.

Considerations for Future Research

Likewise, it would be enriching to incorporate more control factors, such as family environment, personality styles, and various types of video games, to gain a more comprehensive perspective of the results.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.Á.G.-G., F.-I.R.-D., M.-I.P.-R. and J.G.-A.; methodology, M.Á.G.-G.; software, M.Á.G.-G.; validation, M.Á.G.-G. and F.-I.R.-D.; formal analysis, M.Á.G.-G. and F.-I.R.-D.; investigation, M.Á.G.-G.; resources, M.Á.G.-G.; data curation, M.Á.G.-G.; writing—original draft preparation, M.Á.G.-G., F.-I.R.-D., M.-I.P.-R. and J.G.-A.; writing—review and editing, M.Á.G.-G., F.-I.R.-D., M.-I.P.-R. and J.G.-A.; visualization, M.Á.G.-G. and F.-I.R.-D.; supervision, M.Á.G.-G. and F.-I.R.-D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of Universidad de Extremadura (60//2022) for studies involving humans.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Written informed consent to publish this paper was obtained from the interviewee(s).

Data Availability Statement

The datasets are available through the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The data are not publicly available due to the Psychology Doctoral Programme policy of the University of Extremadura.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

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Tables

Table 1

The results of the Student’s t-test for psychological dependency and evasion, and negative consequences based on gender.

Gender	Groups	N	Mean	SD	t (df)	p	d
Psychological Dependency and Evasion	Male	658	15.75	4.43	15.20 (1133.8)	0.000	0.856
	Female	488	12.13	3.61
Negative Consequences	Male	658	14.00	3.87	11.32 (1143.7)	0.000	0.676
	Female	488	11.63	2.91

Note: N = sample size; SD = standard deviation; t = Student’s t statistic; df = degrees of freedom; p = significance level; and d = Cohen’s d statistic.

Table 2

The results of the ANOVA test for CERV dimensions based on age groups.

Variables	Groups	N	Mean	SD	F (df1; df2)	p	Eta2
Psychological Dependency and Evasion	Early Adolescence	367	14.01	4.33	2.65 (2; 1143)	0.070	0.005
	Middle Adolescence	751	14.25	4.48
	Late Adolescence	28	16.00	5.89
Negative Consequences	Early Adolescence	367	13.05	3.53	4.47 (2; 1143)	0.012	0.008
	Middle Adolescence	751	12.90	3.67
	Late Adolescence	28	15.00	5.35

Note: N = sample size; SD = standard deviation; F = ANOVA statistic; df = degrees of freedom; and p = significance level.

Table 3

The results of the Bonferroni post hoc test in the negative consequences dimension.

Dependent Variable			Mean Difference (I − J)	Standard Error	p	95% Confidence Interval
	Age Group (I)	Age Group (J)				Lower Limit	Upper Limit
Negative Consequences	Middle Adolescence	Early Adolescence	−0.15	0.23	0.797	−0.70	0.40
	Late Adolescence	Early Adolescence	1.95 *	0.72	0.019	0.26	3.64
		Middle Adolescence	2.10 *	0.71	0.008	0.44	3.76

Note: * p < 0.05

Table 4

The results of the Pearson correlation Test between CERV dimensions and emotions.

		Often Feels Unhappy, Discouraged, or Tearful	Has Many Fears, Gets Easily Scared	Frequently Has Tantrums or Fits of Anger
Psychological Dependence and Avoidance	r	0.102 *	−0.005	0.117 *
	p	0.001	0.874	0.000
	N	1146	1146	1145
Negative Consequences	r	0.172 *	0.030	0.113 *
	p	0.000	0.310	0.000
	N	1146	1146	1145

Note: r = Pearson correlation coefficient; p = level of significance; N = sample size; and * p < 0.05.

Table 5

Multiple linear regression results for the dimensions of psychological dependence and negative consequences in relation to gender, age, and emotions.

Variables		Variables Model Statistics			Colinearity Statistics
		B	t	p	Tolerance	VIF	F (p)	R2
Psychological Dependence	Gender	−3.267	−18.412	0.000	0.940	1.064
	Unhappiness	0.883	6.035	0.000	0.892	1.121	125.35 (0.000)	25.60%
	Temper Tantrums or Fits of Anger	0.495	3.711	0.000	0.925	1.081
	Fears	0.361	2.618	0.009	0.915	1.093
Negative Consequences	Gender	−3.267	−18.412	0.000	0.940	1.064	92.15 (0.000)	20.10%
	Unhappiness	0.883	6.035	0.000	0.892	1.121
	Temper Tantrums or Fits of Anger	0.495	3.711	0.000	0.925	1.081
	Fears	0.361	2.618	0.009	0.915	1.093

Note: B = unstandardized Beta coefficient; t = Student’s t statistic; VIF = Variation inflation factor; p = significance level; F = ANOVA statistic and R² = Determination coefficient

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su16010099/s1.

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