Introduction
Cultural diversity worldwide has resulted in significant differences in food preferences, cooking techniques, nutritional content, and eating customs and behaviors [1]. The Mediterranean Diet (MD), deeply rooted in the culinary traditions of Mediterranean nations, represents a holistic approach to nutrition, encapsulating skills, knowledge, and traditions from the landscape to the table. This dietary model maintains consistency over time and space, emphasizing the consumption of high-quality, unsaturated fats, whole grains, and a rich assortment of fresh fruits and vegetables. Beyond its nutritional focus, the MD promotes social interaction, with communal meals acting as a cornerstone of social customs and festive events. Shaped by the region's climate, flora, and the resilience of its inhabitants, the MD reflects both cultural heritage and the practical aspects of daily life [2–4]. Recognized for its richness in biodiversity, nutritional benefits, and positive impact on the longevity of long-term food supply systems [5], the MD has been extensively studied and recognized for promoting good health, reducing the risk of developing chronic diseases, and improving the overall quality of life [6–10].
The MD is commonly linked with Mediterranean countries such as Morocco, Greece, Italy, and Spain, in which UNESCO acknowledged the Mediterranean diet as an intangible cultural heritage in 2010 for these countries [11]. Each country has unique regional variations and specialties. While the core principles of the Mediterranean diet are shared across these cultures, understanding the Moroccan diet requires acknowledging its considerable regional diversity, influenced by geographical, climatic, and cultural factors. These regional differences impact the types of ingredients used, cooking techniques, and the frequency of certain foods. Despite these regional differences, the MD remains a unifying factor among these nations, reflecting a shared heritage and way of life. It's a testament to the enduring influence of this dietary pattern that it has been adopted and embraced by people worldwide, even beyond the Mediterranean region [1, 2]. It's important to recognize that the MD is not one uniform diet, every country has its own unique cultural and regional influences that contribute to its specific culinary customs [3].
The MD has evolved over time, influenced by various factors such as globalization, urbanization, and economic changes. While the core principles have remained consistent, the specific composition and adherence to the diet have varied across different Mediterranean countries. Some studies highlight a decreased adherence to the MD in Western Balkans and Adriatic territories [12]. Mediterranean Europe showed the greatest deterioration, and the Southern Mediterranean maintained higher adherence. However, from 2004 to 2011, this decline slowed, and in some countries, adherence even improved.
As Morocco has undergone several nutritional transitional periods [13, 14], the government actively promotes healthy eating habits, aligning with the national nutrition strategy of 2011–2019 [15]. This strategy, part of a broader health policy, integrates recommendations from the World Health Organization (WHO), particularly for the Mediterranean region, to promote overall health and well-being [15–17]. Despite these efforts, studies on Moroccan’s adherence to the MD remain limited. Many of the available studies, often conducted outside Morocco, focused on isolated parameters such as gender (e.g., woman: [18], age (adolescent: [19]), or socioeconomic status (e.g., schoolchildren: [20]), utilizing methodologies like cookbooks [6] or questionnaires [1, 21]. These studies do not offer a comprehensive, nationwide understanding of adherence to the MD, making it difficult to draw conclusive insights for the entire population.
This review investigates how urbanization, economic development, and globalization have influenced Moroccan food habits and the country's adherence to the Mediterranean diet. By examining these factors, we aim to provide valuable insights for health professionals, researchers, agriculturalists, food industry professionals, policy-makers, consumers, and the general public in Morocco. This review may also be useful for other countries in North Africa with similar food consumption habits or Moroccan immigrant populations in different countries.
Methods
This literature review assessed the dietary patterns in Morocco and their adherence to the MD in the context of societal changes, including urbanization and globalization. A comprehensive search of scientific databases, such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus, was performed to gather relevant studies published between 1977 and 2023. Keywords used in the search included "Mediterranean Diet," "Morocco," "dietary habits," "nutrition transition," and "COVID-19 pandemic."
Data were compiled following international guidelines and standards, particularly from FAO/INFOODS, peer-reviewed articles focusing on Moroccan dietary habits and adherence to the MD, national surveys, government reports on food consumption in Morocco, studies discussing the influence of societal changes on dietary behaviors, and popular Moroccan cookbooks. Gray literature, such as government reports and unpublished theses, was also considered to gain a broader understanding of current dietary trends. Additionally, studies from other Mediterranean countries were examined to compare dietary changes between Morocco and the broader Mediterranean region.
Data extracted from these studies included information on food consumption patterns, nutrient intake, and factors influencing diet changes, such as urbanization, economic development, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Studies were selected based on their relevance to the research objectives, and articles available in English, French, or Arabic were reviewed.
The collected data were analyzed to identify recurring themes and trends related to the MD in Morocco. The quality of the included studies was assessed by reviewing sample sizes, methodologies, and the robustness of their findings. Any discrepancies in findings between studies were noted and discussed within the context of the broader literature.
Moroccan diet
Morocco, located in North Africa, is geographically diverse, bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its topography encompasses mountains, plateaus, plains, oases, and Saharan dunes, resulting in varied climatic conditions and significant regional differences in annual precipitation [13]. Comprising 12 regions, Morocco is characterized by unique cultural diversity, with the main ethnic groups being Berbers, Arabs, and Sahraouis. Berbers are concentrated in the mountainous regions of the Rif (Rifains), Middle and High Atlas (Amazighenes), and the Anti-Atlas (Tachelhites or Souassas) [22].
Regional variations in culinary traditions
Moroccan cuisine is renowned for its wide array of dishes and products, varying in preparation, cooking methods, and preservation techniques through regions [18] (Fig. 1). Coastal regions, such as Tangier, Casablanca, and Rabat, predominantly feature seafood in their diets, reflecting their geographic location and access to the ocean. In contrast, inland areas like Saïss rely more on locally grown fruits and vegetables, influencing the preparation of dishes like vegetable tagines and couscous. These regional variations are essential in understanding Morocco’s overall dietary landscape, illustrating how local resources and traditions shape the national cuisine [23]. The Atlas Mountains highlight a cuisine rich in meats, including lamb and goat, prepared with distinct Berber spices. The Sahara region, on the other hand, integrates ingredients like dates and camel meat, which are central to the diet in these arid areas [24, 25].
Fig. 1 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Regional Moroccan dishes
Historical influences on Moroccan cuisine
Moroccan cuisine is a product of its rich historical tapestry, shaped by foreign invasions and cultural exchanges. The Roman Empire, Arab conquests, and Spanish and French colonization have all contributed to the diverse culinary landscape [25–27]. During the Arab conquests in the seventh century, many new spices and cooking techniques were introduced, such as the use of saffron, cumin, and cinnamon. A famous dish influenced by the Arab presence is Harira, a rich soup made with lentils, chickpeas, tomatoes, and meat, often served during Ramadan. In contrast, the oasis regions incorporate crops such as dates, figs, and palm products, while areas influenced by Bedouin nomadic practices, such as the southeast, highlight camel and goat meat as well as dairy products in their diets [28]. These new spices and cooking methods have significantly impacted regions like the Atlas Mountains, where traditional spices and preparation methods have become integral to local cuisine. Meanwhile, the Berber people, the indigenous inhabitants of Morocco, introduced fundamental elements of Moroccan cuisine, such as couscous and tagines. These dishes are staples in Berber regions, often made with locally available meats (lamb, goat) and vegetables. A specific dish is Tahricht, a combination of lamb's organ meats cooked in spices, commonly prepared for festive occasions in Berber communities. The Spanish, specifically the Andalusian influence, where many Muslims migrated to Morocco, brought new ingredients and cooking styles. This led to the introduction of dishes like Pastilla, paella, and bocadillos that reflect European tastes [29]. At the same time, French colonization in the twentieth century left its mark on Moroccan cuisine, particularly in urban areas like Casablanca and Rabat. Baguettes, croissants, and various pastries are now commonplace in Moroccan bakeries. Briouats, small savory or sweet pastries filled with meat, seafood, or almonds, reflect the French influence on Moroccan snacks and appetizers [30, 31]. Moroccan Jews have also played a role in shaping the country’s cuisine, especially in preserving and preparing certain dishes. Dafina, a slow-cooked stew traditionally eaten by Moroccan Jews on the Sabbath, combines meat, potatoes, chickpeas, and eggs, reflecting the integration of local ingredients with Jewish culinary traditions [32].
Characteristics of Moroccan dietary habits and nutritional intake@
The geographical diversity, climatic conditions, and human heritage in Morocco give an exceptionally rich and varied gastronomy. Anchored in the unique characteristics of each region, Morocco's culinary identity flourishes through the use of local products and the preservation of ancestral know-how [33, 34]. The nutritional values for each nutrient are considered uniform, taking into account the values described by food standards [35, 36].
Seasonal vegetables such as cabbages and salads are consumed raw, in soup, or combined with grains or pulses. Dry vegetables like beans, lentils, and chickpeas are a major source of plant-based protein, contributing to a high fiber and complex carbohydrate-rich diet [37].
Herbs and spices like thyme, oregano, rosemary, coriander, parsley, and basil are integral to the flavor and nutritional value of Moroccan dishes, many of which are rich in antioxidants [38, 39]. Morocco boasts a diverse array of fresh fruits, many of which are consumed year-round. Dates, a national symbol, and a rich source of fiber are particularly abundant. Citrus fruits, such as lemons and oranges, are also widely enjoyed, and traditional preservation methods like drying and pickling ensure their availability throughout the year. Other popular fruits include pomegranates, figs, grapes, apricots, and plums, each offering unique flavors and nutritional benefits. These fruits are often incorporated into various Moroccan dishes, adding a burst of freshness and sweetness to both savory and sweet preparations [40].
Furthermore, Almonds, Hazelnuts, Peanuts, and Nuts are rich sources of protein, fiber, and healthy fatty acids. Offering a range of nutrients that promote good health. They are primarily used in bread, a staple accompanying most meals, and in couscous (a dish consumed weekly across the country) [41, 42].
Olive oil is the main fat source in Moroccan cuisine and is valued for its high polyphenolic compound content and health benefits. It serves as a base for various Moroccan dishes and is a staple part of breakfast [40]. Plant-based oils follow, while butter is rarely used in cooking, except for certain traditional dishes like couscous or harira, where native rancid butter, ‘Ghee’, is employed [43].
The Moroccan economy holds a significant position in the Arab world and Africa, especially in fish and seafood production, as highlighted in the report of the FAO. Given its status as a marine nation, Morocco boasts a thriving seafood industry, offering a diverse array of crustaceans and fish sourced from both the Mediterranean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. Furthermore, Moroccans have a strong preference for fresh fish, with over 90% of total fish consumption being fresh, the analysis of fish products consumption shows that the Moroccan consumer has a very clear preference for fresh fish (96.81% of the total consumption). This total represents 29 percent of total meat consumption, where red meats account for 33% and poultry 38% [44]. In coastal areas, the high consumption of seafood contributes to a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids [45], while inland regions with a focus on grains and legumes provide high fiber and complex carbohydrates [46]. Understanding these differences is crucial for a comprehensive view of Morocco’s dietary habits and nutritional intake.
For protein intake, Moroccans consume meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products regularly. Chicken, rabbit, mouton, and lamb are the primary sources of meat [47], while dairy products like cheese and yogurt are consumed in moderation, contributing to the overall protein intake [48].
Moroccan pastries are known for their unique flavors. They are crafted with minimal sugar and fat content, reflecting the country’s culinary emphasis on balanced and wholesome ingredients [49, 50]
Green Tea, consumed throughout the day, holds a central place in Moroccan culture [49], while alcohol is discouraged. Alcohol consumption is not widely practiced in Morocco due to religious and cultural factors; it is not completely absent. Studies have shown that alcohol consumption is generally low, especially among women and in rural areas [51, 52]. However, there may be regional variations, and some individuals may consume alcohol, particularly in urban areas and among certain social groups [53, 54].
WHO and FAO provide general recommendations for nutrient intake that are adapted to local Moroccan dietary habits [55] (Table 1). These guidelines also take into account the influence of the climate, food availability, and lifestyle factors. Morocco’s Ministry of Health provides dietary guidelines that largely align with FAO/WHO standards. These guidelines emphasize the importance of a balanced diet, regular physical activity, and limiting unhealthy foods. However, these recommendations can vary based on age, gender, activity levels, and regional food availability.
Table 1. Macronutrient and Micronutrient Intake Recommendations adapted to local Moroccan dietary habits
Nutritional intakes | Recommendation based on FAO/WHO Guidelines |
|---|---|
Macronutrients (daily caloric intake) | |
Carbohydrates | 45–65% |
Protein | 10–15% |
Fats | 20–35% |
Micronutrients (daily intake) | |
Vitamin A | 770 µg (females), 900 µg (males) |
Vitamin B1 | 1.2 mg (females), 1.5 mg (males) |
Vitamin B2 | 1.1 mg (females), 1.3 mg (males) |
Vitamin B6 | 1.5 mg (females), 1.7 mg (males) |
Vitamin B12 | 2.4 µg (females), 2.6 µg (males) |
Vitamin C | 75–90 mg |
Vitamin D | 15 μg |
Vitamin E | 15 mg (females), 15 mg (males) |
Iron | 8–18 mg |
Calcium | 1000–1300 mg |
Zinc | 8 mg (females), 11 mg (males) |
Magnesium | 420 mg (females), 400 mg (males) |
Potassium | 4700 mg (females), 4600 mg (males) |
Sodium | 2300 mg |
Phosphorus | 700 mg (females), 700 mg (males) |
Selenium | 55 µg (females), 55 µg (males) |
Iodine | 150 µg |
Culinary heritage and regional variations
Moroccan culinary customs and eating habits are deeply rooted and passed down through generations, forming an integral part of daily life. There are notable culinary differences among Moroccan cities and regions. The majority of the country shares some prevalent dietary components [14, 56]. For example, while Chicken Tagine is a national dish, its preparation varies by region. In coastal areas, it might include seafood, while in the Atlas Mountains, it often features preserved lemons and olives. The Sahara region incorporates camel meat, showcasing the region’s resourcefulness in its cuisine. This variety not only reflects cultural diversity but also provides a wide range of nutritional benefits.
Key regional dishes include couscous and tagine, which have notable macronutrient differences. For example, Chicken Tajine is protein-rich, while Harira is lower in lipids but high in fiber due to the inclusion of lentils and chickpeas [47]. Moroccan bread, such as khobz and msemen, is a staple, often served with every meal [24]. Regional specialties such as seafood tagines in coastal areas and camel meat dishes in the Sahara illustrate the rich culinary diversity across Morocco [50, 57]. This variety not only reflects cultural and historical influences but also showcases the nutritional benefits associated with different regional diets. Table 2 provides an overview of the diverse culinary landscape of Morocco. Each region boasts its own unique specialties, reflecting the influence of local ingredients, cultural traditions, and historical factors.
Table 2. Characteristics of diverse traditional dishes in Morocco
Moroccan regions | Traditional Dishes | Description |
|---|---|---|
National Traditional Dishes (These dishes are popular throughout Morocco, with slight regional variations in preparation) | Harira | A hearty tomato-based soup with lentils, chickpeas, and meat or vegetables |
Couscous | A semolina served with a stew of meat, vegetables, and spices | |
Pastilla | A sweet and savory pie filled with pigeon, almonds, and spices, typically served during special occasions | |
Msemen | A layered flatbread often served with honey or butter | |
Rfissa | made with shredded msemen, topped with a fragrant stew of chicken, lentils, and fenugreek seeds, all seasoned with a blend of Moroccan spices | |
Tagine | A slow-cooked stew typically made with meat, vegetables, and spices, often served in the distinctive conical clay pot. Chicken tagine with olives or beef tagine with prunes | |
Sardine | Grilled sardine skewers, often marinated in chermoula, are popular in coastal areas | |
Harcha | A semolina-based bread, slightly crispy on the outside and soft on the inside, often served with honey or jam | |
Sfenj | Fried doughnuts, often sprinkled with sugar or served with honey | |
Baghrir | Also known as "thousand-hole pancakes," these are spongy pancakes made from semolina | |
Trid | Thin, layered bread often served with chicken and lentils, similar to Rfissa with different regional variations | |
Briouat | Savory pastries filled with meat, seafood, cheese, or vegetables | |
Khobz | Moroccan flatbread, often served with tajines and other dishes | |
Moroccan Salade | Moroccan salad made with tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, and olives | |
North (Tangier, Tetouan, Chefchaouen) | Bissara | A thick, hearty split pea soup often served with bread, cumin, and olive oil |
Tagra | A fish tagine, often made with sardines or mackerel | |
fritura | Mixed fried seafood, is a popular dish in coastal areas | |
Jben | Fresh cheese is often served with bread and honey | |
Chermoula | A spicy marinade or sauce made with herbs, spices, and lemon juice | |
Paella | A rice dish of Spanish influence, particularly in northern coastal regions | |
Bocadillos | Spanish-style sandwiches filled with various ingredients, popular in northern Morocco | |
Caliente | A type of flan or quiche made from chickpea flour, popular as street food | |
Central (Fes, Meknes) | Khlii | A type of preserved meat, often served with eggs |
Chicken tajine | A chicken tagine with lemon and preserved lemons | |
Rissoles | Small savory pastries filled with meat, cheese, or vegetables | |
Makouda | Crispy fritters are made with potatoes, fish, and spices | |
Bissara | A thick soup made with fava beans, cumin, and olive oil | |
South (Marrakech, Agadir, Essaouira) | Tanjia | A slow-cooked dish traditionally prepared by men, involving meat (usually lamb) cooked with preserved lemon and spices, often buried in hot ashes to cook slowly |
Zaalouk | A roasted eggplant dish with tomatoes, peppers, and spices | |
Amlou | A sweet almond paste is often served with bread | |
Argan oil | A prized ingredient used in cooking and skincare | |
Chicken tajine | A chicken tagine with saffron | |
Eastern (Oujda, Erfoud, Figuig) | Kesra | A type of flatbread made from cornmeal or millet |
Tlitli | A dish made with pasta, chicken, and chickpeas, similar to Algerian cuisine | |
Rgaïdat | Thin pancakes are often served with honey or butter | |
Bakhbouza | A sweet almond cake | |
Kefta | Spiced meatballs, often served with couscous or bread | |
Beef tajine | A beef tagine with vegetables and spices | |
Chicken tajine | A chicken tagine with lemon and olives | |
Minced beef tajine | A beef tagine with minced meat | |
Fish tajine | A fish tagine with saffron | |
Tajine with dates | A unique tagine dish incorporating dates for a sweet and savory flavor | |
Western (Casablanca, Rabat) | Tagine with seafood | Coastal regions often feature seafood tagines, such as fish or shellfish |
Chicken tajine | A chicken tagine with mushrooms | |
Beef tajine | A beef tagine with vegetables | |
Fish tajine | A fish tagine with herbs | |
Souss-Massa (Tiznit, Taroudant) | Tajine Amlou | A tagine dish featuring Amlou, a blend of almonds, honey, and argan oil |
Berkoukech | A type of pasta made from semolina often served with a tomato-based sauce or in a broth | |
Camel tajine | A Camel meat tagine, a specialty in more rural areas | |
Mekfoul | A slow-cooked dish made with lamb, onions, and spices | |
Couscous au Lait | A variation of couscous served with fermented milk or buttermilk | |
M’semen Mella | A variation of msemen flatbread, often made with anise and fennel seeds | |
Tafarnout | A traditional bread baked in a clay oven is often found in rural areas | |
Taktouka | A Moroccan salad made with roasted peppers, tomatoes, and spices, similar to Zaalouk but with a different flavor profile | |
Tagine with quince (Safarjal) | A tagine that incorporates quince for a unique sweet and tart flavor | |
Middle Atlas (Ifrane, Azrou) | Trid (Bastila Trid) | Similar to pastilla but made with shredded warqa pastry and layered with meat |
Tahricht | A dish made from various organ meats, typically prepared for special occasions | |
High Atlas (Imlil, Ouarzazate) | Tanjia Berbère | A variant of the traditional Tanjia, often using different spices and cooking methods |
Asrout | A traditional dish made with dried meat is typically served during winter months | |
Awrfi | A thick soup made with barley, vegetables, and sometimes meat, common in high-altitude regions | |
Madfouna (Berber Pizza) | A stuffed flatbread filled with meat, onions, and spices, baked in a clay oven | |
Aghroum | A type of bread often made with barley or corn, typical in Berber communities | |
Seffa Medfouna | Sweetened vermicelli or couscous dish, often topped with cinnamon and sugar | |
Saharan Morocco (Dakhla, Laayoune) | Mechoui | A whole roasted lamb or goat is often served at celebrations |
Askeef | A porridge made from barley or wheat, often sweetened with dates or honey | |
Madfouna | A type of stuffed bread filled with meat, vegetables, and spices | |
Mrouzia | A sweet and savory dish made with lamb, raisins, and almonds, often flavored with honey and spices | |
Hassaniya Tea | A traditional tea ceremony involving the preparation of mint tea is typical in the Saharan region | |
Camel Milk | Camel milk is commonly consumed in the Saharan regions, known for its nutritional benefits | |
Bedouin Influences (Southeast Morocco) | Zrig | A fermented milk drink, often flavored with herbs or spices |
Meat Dishes | Various meat-based dishes, including goat and camel | |
Rif Mountains (Al Hoceima, Nador) | Tagine Rifain | A tagine dish typical of the Rif region, often made with goat meat |
Merguez | Spicy sausages made from lamb or beef, often grilled or cooked in a tagine |
This table provides a general overview of the traditional dishes commonly found in various Moroccan regions based on general knowledge about Moroccan cuisine found in cookbooks, travel guides, and cultural studies focused on Moroccan food traditions [50, 57, 59]. The ingredients and cooking methods used in these dishes may vary, reflecting the diverse cultural influences and agricultural practices across the country
Moroccan cuisine is intertwined with religious and traditional festivals, as well as private ceremonies from birth to death. Dishes like Pastilla, Harira, and Rfissa are commonly served at celebrations, reflecting the deep historical evolution of food that has been influenced by Islamic expansion and the introduction of new crops and spices [58].
Contemporary dietary trends and government initiatives
In light of the major changes in dietary patterns that Morocco has experienced over the past decades and the struggle to preserve the traditional diet, Morocco has witnessed several bumps in the dietary pattern mirroring global trends. These changes have led to a growing emphasis on health and nutrition, as well as a desire for convenience and variety in food choices. Simultaneously, there's a growing preference for natural and organic products fueled by concerns about food safety, environmental sustainability, and perceived health benefits. This shift reflects a broader global trend towards healthier eating habits, with Moroccans increasingly incorporating fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins into their diets [60].
The influence of social media and food trends has also shaped dietary choices in Morocco. Influencers and food bloggers promote various cuisines and products, contributing to the popularity of certain dietary styles and ingredients [61].
The Moroccan government has implemented several initiatives to promote healthy eating and sustainable food systems. The National Nutrition Strategy (SNN: (2011–2019)) focuses on improving nutrition and access to affordable, nutritious foods [15], the SNN has launched various programs, such as school nutrition programs and community gardens, to promote healthy eating among children and families. The Green Morocco Plan (PMV) 2008–2020 enhances agricultural development and food security, the PMV has also supported the development of the agricultural value chain, facilitated access to credit for smallholder farmers, and promoted the use of modern agricultural technologies [62]. Meanwhile, the GGS Green Generation Strategy (2020–2030) which is Building on PMV, this strategy focuses on youth entrepreneurship and sustainable agricultural practices, aiming to increase agricultural exports and modernize the agricultural sector [63]. The Halieutis Plan supports sustainable fisheries, increases investment in the fisheries sector, improves fish quality and safety, and expands export markets for Moroccan seafood [64]. The National Human Development Initiative (INDH) tackles poverty and social inclusion through agriculture and nutrition-related efforts, and the INDH has helped to improve access to basic services, create job opportunities, and empower marginalized communities [65]. Despite progress, challenges like food insecurity and the impact of globalization persist. However, opportunities such as leveraging digital technologies, water management expertise, and biodiversity offer the potential for more sustainable food production.
These efforts aim not only to safeguard the health of its citizens but also to celebrate and preserve the unique culinary heritage rooted in regional variations, contributing to the country's rich flavors. This guarantees a legacy of well-being and culinary diversity for future generations [66, 67].
Food transitions
Societal changes
Morocco has undergone significant demographic and societal transformations in recent decades, mirroring broader trends across the Mediterranean region. These changes, including rapid urbanization, increased life expectancy [13, 68], and rising educational levels, have had a profound impact on dietary habits [6, 10].
The rapid expansion of the food industry and the growing influence of media have played a crucial role in shaping dietary patterns across both rural and urban areas [68]. Advertising and marketing campaigns have promoted processed foods, fast food, and sugary drinks, leading to increased consumption of these less nutritious options. Additionally, the availability of a wider range of food products, both domestically and internationally, has diversified the Moroccan food landscape.
A study by Khalis et al. [37] highlights the importance of updated food composition tables (FCTs) in understanding the nutritional content of Moroccan diets. The previous FCTs, dating back to 1984, did not accurately reflect the changing dietary habits of the population. The updated FCTs, with a more extensive database of foods and nutrients, provide valuable insights into the nutritional composition of the Moroccan diet.
These societal changes and the evolving food landscape have contributed to a nutritional transition in Morocco. While traditional dietary habits continue to play a significant role, there is a growing emphasis on convenience, affordability, and the perceived benefits of Western-style foods. This shift has implications for public health, as it may lead to increased consumption of less nutritious options and potential nutritional deficiencies [69–72].
Impact of tourism and globalization on moroccan dietary habits
Tourism and globalization have significantly influenced Moroccan dietary habits in recent decades. The influx of tourists has led to the introduction of various international cuisines, such as Italian, Chinese, and American. This has diversified Moroccan food options but may also contribute to dietary changes, potentially leading to increased consumption of processed foods and sugary drinks. The tourism industry has influenced the development of restaurants and cafes catering to international tastes, leading to changes in eating habits among Moroccans. This includes a shift towards more frequent consumption of meals outside the home and a preference for convenience foods. A study conducted by El Hafid et al. [22] highlighted the role of Moroccan gastronomy in tourism and compared the views of tourists and professionals. Local cuisine was found to be a crucial factor in business, health, and religious tourism for tourists, while professionals deemed it significant for cultural, recreational, and business tourism. Tourists value gastronomy for its unique experience, influencing their destination choice. Despite being well-known and positively perceived, communication about Moroccan cuisine could be improved.
The increased availability of international cuisines has led to a diversification of Moroccan dietary habits, potentially introducing new nutrients and food groups. However, it has also contributed to the increased consumption of processed foods and sugary drinks, which can have negative health implications.
The introduction of international cuisines and dietary changes through tourism and globalization has significantly influenced Moroccan dietary habits, particularly in urban areas. While this has diversified food options, it has also led to increased consumption of processed foods and sugary drinks, potentially posing health risks [60, 73]. The shift away from traditional Mediterranean diets, rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and olive oil, towards more convenient and processed foods has contributed to rising rates of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases [74]. The growing influence of global food trends has also impacted local agricultural practices, as farmers prioritize crops with high international demand, potentially affecting the availability of traditional ingredients for local consumption [60].
Several studies found that while Moroccans have become more open to international cuisines, they still prioritize traditional Moroccan dishes [24, 37]. This suggests that the influence of tourism and globalization has not completely overshadowed the importance of local cuisine.
Dietary shifts and health implications
Morocco boasts a rich tapestry of culinary traditions, with distinct regional cuisines such as the Berber and Atlas cuisines, each contributing unique flavors, ingredients, and cooking techniques to the broader Moroccan culinary landscape. The Berber cuisine, deeply rooted in the rural communities of the Atlas Mountains and beyond, is known for its use of barley, couscous, and locally sourced vegetables. Dishes like tagine and harira often feature prominently, utilizing aromatic herbs, olive oil, and a variety of legumes, reflecting a diet that is historically plant-based and rich in nutrients. In contrast, the cuisine of the Atlas region often emphasizes hearty stews, wild herbs, and meats, particularly lamb, which are integral to both daily meals and ceremonial feasts. These regional culinary practices have evolved over centuries, shaped by geographical, climatic, and cultural influences [50, 75].
As Morocco undergoes dietary transitions, these regional culinary practices are experiencing varying degrees of change. Urbanization and economic growth have introduced foods rich in micronutrients, yet the level of animal product consumption remains relatively low compared to the country’s agricultural potential. However, this trend is not uniform across all regions. In rural Berber areas, for example, there is a continued reliance on traditional, plant-based dishes, which may contribute to lower incidences of diet-related diseases such as cardiovascular conditions and diabetes when compared to urban centers. Influenced by global food marketing and the convenience of ready-to-eat foods, urban areas are seeing a rise in the consumption of animal products, processed foods, and high-sugar snacks [72, 76]. This nutritional transition has reduced malnutrition in young children but has also led to the coexistence of obesity within the same social category or families, contributing to health concerns such as diabetes, heart and blood vessel diseases, and certain cancers [70, 76].
To further illustrate the diversity within Moroccan dietary patterns, statistical data from the Ministry of Health and other regional studies could provide a more nuanced view of these changes. For instance, surveys from the High Commission for Planning might reveal that while urban areas are witnessing a sharp increase in energy consumption—from 2202 kcal in 1970 to 3031 kcal in 2001—rural regions like those inhabited by Berber communities maintain a more stable caloric intake, aligned with traditional dietary practices [13]. These studies also highlight a notable variety in the daily diet across various food groups, with urban areas showing a decrease in the percentage of complex carbohydrates and an increase in the consumption of simple sugars. Despite this shift, cereal intake remains consistently high across the country. Additionally, there has been an increased consumption of vegetables and fruits, accompanied by a shift from vegetable proteins to a higher percentage of animal protein, particularly white meat [24]. This dietary evolution has also led to an increase in the percentage of saturated and invisible lipids, while the intake of dietary fiber has seen a decline [18]. These changes underscore the complex interplay between modernization, regional diversity, and health outcomes in Morocco.
Health implications also vary significantly between the regions. The rising consumption of processed foods in urban areas has led to a spike in diet-related diseases, creating a public health challenge that is being addressed through government and NGO initiatives aimed at promoting traditional diets. Several studies have shown the implication of dietary habits on the development of disease. One study highlights that Moroccan adults have higher energy and protein intakes but lower dietary fiber and water intakes than the updated Mediterranean diet pyramid [77]. Others revealed that Moroccan culinary recipes vary in macronutrients, micronutrients, and lipid content, making it difficult to determine the "healthiest" dish [78] a study by Kaoutar et al. highlights that nutrition transition in Morocco has led to increased overweight and obesity [74]. In contrast, the traditional Berber diet is associated with lower levels of saturated fats and cholesterol, potentially leading to lower rates of heart disease compared to more Westernized urban diets. Despite changes in the market economy, the Berber diet remains a cultural heritage that has not changed [79].
While Moroccans generally adhere to recommended macronutrient intakes, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats (Table 3), significant deficiencies exist in key micronutrients, including Vitamin A, Vitamin D, calcium, iodine, iron, and zinc. These deficiencies, particularly among females and children in rural areas, pose potential public health risks like compromised bone health, weakened immune function, and cognitive impairments. Sodium intake remains consistently high. The findings suggest a need for dietary interventions, increased nutritional awareness, and access to fortified foods to address these gaps and promote a more balanced diet. However, the generalizability of these findings is limited by factors such as sample size, study design, and regional dietary variations.
Table 3. Macronutrient and Micronutrient Intake Recommendations adapted to local Moroccan dietary habits
Nutritional intakes | Study 1 2021 | Study 3 2021 | Study 2 2020 | Study 5 2019 | Study 6 2018 | Study 4 2017 | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Macronutrients (daily caloric intake) | |||||||
Carbohydrates | 42.68–2.37 g % | N/A | 56% | N/A | N/A | N/A | [78, 80] |
Protein | 17.37–0.06% | N/A | 16% | N/A | N/A | N/A | [78, 80] |
Fats | 19.2–0.6% | N/A | 28% | N/A | N/A | N/A | [78, 80] |
Micronutrients (daily intake) | |||||||
Vitamin A | N/A | 409.3 μg female 294.5 μg male | N/A | 84,6 µg | N/A | 178,1 µg | [81–83] |
Vitamin D | N/A | N/A | N/A | 8,97 µg | N/A | 2,7 µg | [82, 83] |
Iron | N/A | N/A | N/A | 10,02 mg | N/A | 8,8 mg | [82, 83] |
Calcium | N/A | N/A | N/A | 404,5 mg | 522.0 mg | 470,4 mg | [82–84] |
Zinc | N/A | N/A | N/A | 8,48 mg | N/A | 6,1 mg | [82, 83] |
Magnesium | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 203,3 mg | [82] | |
Potassium | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1495,5 mg | N/A |
Sodium | N/A | N/A | N/A | 3616,3 mg | N/A | 697,3 mg | [82, 83] |
Iodine | N/A | N/A | N/A | 35,1 µg | N/A | 51,5 µg | [82, 83] |
Comparative analysis of dietary transitions in Mediterranean countries
While Morocco has experienced dietary transitions, these shifts vary across Mediterranean countries (Table 4). This comparative analysis can provide valuable insights into the regional variations in nutritional trends and their underlying causes.
Table 4. Comparative analysis of dietary transitions in some Mediterranean countries
Aspect | Morocco | Italy | Spain | Greece | Turkey | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Traditional Diet | High consumption of fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, fish, and olive oil; limited intake of red meat and dairy products | Vegetables, fruits, legumes, olive oil, fish | Vegetables, fruits, legumes, olive oil, fish | Vegetables, olive oil, legumes, grains, fish, and minimal meat | Vegetables, grains, moderate meat, rich culinary diversity | [74, 90, 93, 98–104] |
Ethnic and Cultural Diversity | Subsumes Berber and Atlas cuisines under a single category | Acknowledges regional variations within Italian cuisine | Acknowledges regional variations within Spanish cuisine | Highlights the influence of Greek culinary heritage | Emphasizes the diversity of Turkish regional cuisines | |
Economic and Industrial Modernization | Coincides with the second half of the twentieth century | Coincides with the second half of the twentieth century | Coincides with the second half of the twentieth century | Coincides with the second half of the twentieth century | Coincides with the second half of the twentieth century | |
Dietary Shifts | Increased consumption of processed foods, sugary snacks, and convenience meals, especially in urban areas | Shift towards processed foods, increased meat and dairy intake | Shift towards processed foods, decreased consumption of legumes and vegetables | Increased consumption of meat and processed food, but traditional diets are still prevalent | Western fast food is growing, but conventional foods like kebabs and stews remain popular | |
Key Influences | Economic growth, urban migration, global food marketing | Globalization, economic growth, busy lifestyles | Urbanization, economic growth, cultural changes | Economic challenges, urbanization, but strong cultural ties to traditional diet | Urbanization, economic development, influence of Western food culture | |
Extent of Westernization | Moderate, more pronounced in urban areas | High, especially among younger generations | High, particularly in urban areas | Moderate, more noticeable in cities | Moderate, with urban areas showing more Westernized patterns | |
Urban vs. Rural Differences | Rural areas retain traditional diets but change slowly | Urban areas are highly Westernized, and the rural regions are somewhat preserved | Urban areas are Westernized, and rural areas are less affected | Rural areas maintain traditional diets more strongly | Rural areas maintain traditional diets more strongly, though changes are occurring | |
Public Health Concerns | Rising obesity rates, increased prevalence of diet-related diseases | Rising obesity, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes | Rising obesity, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes | Concern over increasing obesity and cardiovascular diseases | Concern over increasing obesity and diet-related diseases | |
Cultural Resistance | Strong in rural areas, moderate in urban areas | Declining, particularly among younger populations | Declining, with a growing preference for convenience foods | Strong, particularly in rural and semi-rural areas | Strong, especially in rural areas, with traditional meals still highly valued | |
Culinary Preservation Efforts | Government and NGOs promoting traditional cuisine | Slow food movements, government initiatives to promote traditional diet | Initiatives to promote the Mediterranean diet, but challenges remain | Public health campaigns promoting traditional diet | Cultural festivals, government campaigns to preserve culinary heritage | |
Examples of Dietary Transition | Increased consumption of sugary drinks and fast food in cities | Rise in fast food chains, decline in home cooking | The shift from legumes to meats, the rise in packaged snacks | There is a slight increase in fast food consumption, but home cooking remains prevalent | The growing popularity of Western fast food, but traditional dishes like "meze" remain central | |
Future Trends | Continued urbanization may further erode traditional diets | There is potential for further Westernization, but cultural movements may slow this | Likely continued Westernization, especially among youth | Possible stabilization as public awareness of the health benefits of traditional diet increases | Continued blend of conventional and Western diets, with potential for cultural revival efforts |
Italy and Spain, two of the most studied countries regarding the Mediterranean diet, have also experienced significant dietary transitions. Traditionally, their diets were characterized by high consumption of vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, fish, and olive oil, with minimal meat and dairy. However, similar to Morocco, Ital, and Spain have seen a rise in the consumption of ultra-processed foods, sugary snacks, and convenience meals, particularly in urban areas. In Italy, younger generations are increasingly favoring fast food and packaged snacks, contributing to rising obesity rates and other health concerns [85–87]. Spain, too, witnessed a decline in the consumption of legumes and fresh produce, with a corresponding increase in meats, dairy, and processed foods [88, 89].
In contrast, Greece and Turkey have maintained a stronger adherence to the traditional Mediterranean diet, particularly during the 1990s, although not without challenges. Greece has largely preserved its traditional diet, particularly in rural areas, despite economic difficulties impacting food accessibility. The Greek diet emphasizes olive oil, vegetables, legumes, and fish, although urban centers are seeing increased meat and processed food consumption [86, 90–92]. Turkey, with its diverse culinary heritage, continues to feature a traditional diet such as “meze” (small plates of various appetizers), kebabs, and vegetable-based stews despite the growing presence of Western fast food. The strong cultural attachment to these foods has helped resist a complete transition towards processed foods [86, 93].
The underlying causes of these dietary transitions include economic development, urbanization, and the influence of global food corporations. In Italy and Spain, the convenience of processed foods aligns with busier lifestyles and the rise of dual-income households. Conversely, Greece and Turkey’s slower transition can be attributed to stronger cultural resistance to abandoning traditional food practices, particularly in rural and semi-rural areas [89, 91].
Economic crises have further influenced dietary patterns. In Southern European countries, the economic downturn has accelerated the shift from traditional diets as financial constraints limit access to healthier options. This has increased consumption of cheaper, high-calorie, and processed foods, particularly among lower socioeconomic groups [87, 94]. In contrast, some Northern European countries have begun adopting Mediterranean-like dietary patterns, highlighting a growing global appreciation for this diet [87, 95].
Morocco presents a transitional case, with urban areas experiencing dietary changes similar to those in Italy and Spain, while rural regions largely maintain their diets. However, as rural populations migrate to cities, this balance is likely to shift, leading to further changes in dietary patterns [96]. Notably, research on Moroccan migrants in Italy indicates that while they adapt to their new environment, they often retain significant elements of their traditional culinary practices, such as aromatic plants and spices integral to their identity and health. This dynamic illustrates how migration influences dietary habits and reflects broader trends in the Mediterranean region, where traditional diets are increasingly challenged by modern processed food options [97].
Dietary changes and the COVID-19 pandemic
Recent changes in food consumption patterns in Morocco reflect a growing concern about raw material sources and a preference for natural and organic products. There has been a notable shift from immediate consumption to a focus on long-term health consequences, especially following the Covid-19 pandemic. Among the significant global transitions, the pandemic has profoundly impacted nutrition habits worldwide, prompting consumers to display increased attentiveness to health implications, adopting a preventive culture, and prioritizing well-being over immediate pleasure.
Research conducted by Lamy et al. [105] during the pandemic-induced lockdown, revealed growing awareness of healthy consumption among the Moroccan population. Despite the confinement, the studied population has maintained adherence to a Mediterranean diet, displaying discipline in purchasing habits geared towards improved health priorities. Additionally, our study conducted by Zian et al. [106] revealed that despite the lockdown, Moroccans largely retained their healthy dietary habits. This resilience is attributed to the traditional diet, rich in bioactive compounds that contribute to overall well-being. These compounds include antioxidants, polyphenols, fiber, and healthy fats. They are associated with numerous health advantages, including a decreased risk of chronic illnesses, enhanced heart health, and improved cognitive function.
Studies revealed that during the COVID-19 pandemic, Moroccans used 23 medicinal plant species to treat respiratory complications [107, 108]. Another study showed that 67.04% of Moroccans use medicinal plants to boost immunity, treat respiratory tract infections, and disinfect the air against COVID-19 [109].
Despite the changes Moroccan dietary habits have undergone due to urbanization and Westernization, the COVID-19 pandemic marked a return to traditional nutritional practices. The pandemic heightened social awareness regarding consumer behavior, leading to a shift towards more sustainable consumption patterns. Individuals began favoring local, organic, and nutrient-rich products. El Bilali et al. [110] revealed significant changes in food-related behaviors, including an increased preference for local products and a resurgence of home cooking, driven largely by confinement measures. This resurgence reflects a deeper connection to Morocco’s traditional dietary roots, reinforcing the importance of local and healthy eating habits, particularly during times of crisis. This return to traditional practices highlights the resilience of the Moroccan dietary framework and underscores the relevance of cultural knowledge in addressing modern health challenges.
Evolution of food situation in Morocco
Over the fifty years between 1960 and 2023, the Moroccan population has more than tripled, exceeding 40 million people in 2023. This growth is characterized by a substantial increase in the urban population, projected to reach 70% by 2020 [13]. The most recent census reports indicate a steady increase in human consumption across all food groups. This rise is primarily attributed to population expansion, followed by urbanization and an improvement in living standards.
An examination of the evolution of general food demand, both numerically and qualitatively, using data from state surveys and the census, reveals significant changes in the food situation in Morocco between 2002 and 2018 (Table 5). The Data demonstrates significant changes in the food landscape in Morocco between 2002 and 2018. Agricultural production has increased, particularly for cereals, legumes, and citrus fruits. Meat consumption has risen, with a significant increase in both red and white meat consumption. Seafood consumption has also expanded due to increased production and imports. The economy has witnessed growth, with declining unemployment rates, especially in rural areas. However, the data also highlights potential challenges, such as the decline in olive production, increased reliance on imported food products, and potential nutritional implications of changing dietary patterns.
Table 5. Evolution of the food situation in Morocco between 2002 and 2018 [35]
2002 | 2018 | Percentage Change | Analysis | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Main agricultural productions (in thousands of quintals) | ||||
Winter cereals | 5,043,300 | 10,289,800 | + 104.0% | Significant increase in cereal production, likely due to improved agricultural practices and increased demand |
Spring cereals | 2,335,100 | 1,847,500 | − 20.9% | Spring cereal production decreases, potentially due to changing cropping patterns or climate factors |
Legumes | 2,653,100 | 2,788,900 | + 5.1% | A slight increase in legume production indicates a growing focus on protein-rich crops |
Industrial crops | 39,737,200 | 44,370,400 | + 11.6% | An increase in industrial crop production is likely driven by market demand for agricultural commodities |
Citrus | 737,2 | 2,256,900 | + 205.4% | Substantial increase in citrus production, potentially due to improved agricultural techniques and market demand |
Olive | 11,430,000 | 10,664,000 | − 6.7% | A slight decrease in olive production |
Meat available for consumption (in thousands of tons) | ||||
Red meats | 344 | 590 | + 71.8% | Significant increase in red meat consumption, possibly driven by health concerns and changing culinary trends |
White meats | 298,307 | 362,96 | + 21.7% | Increased consumption of white meats is likely due to rising incomes and changing dietary preferences |
Marine fisheries (Weight in tons) | ||||
Preserving | 147,837 | 233,752 | + 58.2% | Growth in the fish processing industry, leading to increased preservation of seafood |
Sub products | 67,411 | 92,233 | + 36.8% | Increase in the production of processed seafood products |
Import of food products (Weight in thousands of tons) | ||||
Raw vegetable oils | 365,385 | 657,432 | + 80.0% | Increased reliance on imported vegetable oils, possibly due to domestic production constraints or cost competitiveness |
Butter | 8,774 | 3,62 | − 58.4% | The decrease in butter imports may be due to increased domestic production or changing consumer preferences |
Corn | 3,336 | 8,3 | + 149.2% | Significant increase in salt imports, likely due to increased domestic demand or production constraints |
Sugars and oleaginous fruits | 1,076 | 2,38 | + 121.2% | Increase in corn imports, possibly for use as feed or for food processing |
Sugar | 534 | 1,103 | + 106.3% | Increased imports of sugars and oleaginous fruits, likely for food processing and consumption |
Activity rate by sex (in %) | ||||
In the Urban area | ||||
Women | 72.9 | 67.8 | − 7.1% | Decrease in the activity rate for women in urban areas |
Men | 20.6 | 18.4 | − 11.2% | There is a slight decrease in the activity rate for men in urban areas |
In Rural area | ||||
Women | 83.3 | 79.4 | − 4.7% | Significant decrease in the activity rate for women in rural areas |
Men | 37.5 | 28.0 | -24.0% | There is a slight decrease in the activity rate for men in rural areas |
Unemployment rate by sex (in %) | ||||
In the Urban area | ||||
Women | 12.8 | 11.8 | − 7.8% | Decrease in unemployment rates for women in urban areas |
Men | 27.4 | 25.0 | − 8.8% | There is a slight decrease in unemployment rates for men in urban areas |
In Rural area | ||||
Women | 15.2 | 11.8 | − 22.4% | Significant decrease in unemployment rates for men in rural areas |
Men | 4.6 | 4.3 | − 6.5% | There is a slight decrease in unemployment rates for women in rural areas |
These data are compiled from the High Commission for Planning reports published on 04/03/2020 [13]. The source of the figures: Ministry of Agriculture and Maritime Fisheries Rural Development and Waters and Forests
According to an analysis of changes in the food budget structure between 2001 and 2018 [111] and updated in 2022 [35], the Moroccan food basket has become increasingly balanced and diverse while maintaining a relatively consistent structural layout. The overall trend reveals several key points:
Staple Foods: The weights of high-calorie staples (cereals and cereal products, sugar and sugar products) decreased from 24.8% in 2001 to 19.4% in 2014, shifting towards a varied diet.
Protein-rich Food: The consumption of high-protein foods such as dairy, eggs, meat, and fish steadily increased (from 33.0% in 2001 to 35.8% in 2014). Fruits also saw a rise in their share of the food budget, moving from 6% to 7.3%, although the consumption of fresh vegetables showed a slight decline (from 9.8% to 8.1%).
Stimulants: Consumption of tea, coffee, and brewing plants saw minor decreases, dropping by 0.3% (3.9 in 2014 compared to 4.2% in 2001).
Dining out: The proportion of the food budget allocated to "food and beverages consumed away from home" increased from 4.7% in 2001 to 6.5% in 2014, indicating a trend toward dining out and preparing meals.
Several critical conclusions about Morocco's evolving food profile over the past 16 years can be drawn from the data and trends presented. Agricultural production has increased slightly, which, in turn, has led to a rise in food imports. Despite societal changes, the Moroccan diet remains predominantly cereal-based, with cereals as staples in nearly all daily meals. However, significant shifts in dietary practices have occurred, particularly with the increased consumption of meat and fish products, primarily driven by the growing urban population. This rise in consumption is more reflective of household-level changes rather than individual consumption patterns. Additionally, there has been a noticeable reduction in activity levels in rural and urban areas, coupled with increased foreclosure rates. Rural women, in particular, tend to engage more in work than their urban counterparts, contributing to a gradual convergence between rural and urban areas regarding socioeconomic status and cultural diversity.
It is essential to consider that these shifts in Morocco's food consumption and production patterns are not isolated. Global factors such as climate change are increasingly affecting agricultural productivity, particularly in regions that rely heavily on rain-fed crops, like Morocco. In the future, the country's agricultural production levels may face challenges due to shifting rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures, and more frequent extreme weather events [60].
Moreover, the issue of food security is critical. Morocco's reliance on imports for essential staples like wheat and sugar raises concerns about its vulnerability to fluctuations in global commodity prices and disruptions in supply chains. These vulnerabilities became particularly apparent during the COVID-19 pandemic when global trade disruptions highlighted the need for countries to strengthen their local food systems and reduce import dependency [112].
While this analysis suggests a shift towards processed foods and Westernized diets in some areas of Morocco, it is essential to recognize that this pattern doesn't apply equally to the entire nation. Demographic health figures for Morocco also point to nutritional transitions, such as increasing rates of obesity and non-communicable diseases. However, these trends may vary across different regions and socioeconomic groups. Further research is needed to fully understand Morocco's complex interplay between dietary changes, demographic factors, and health outcomes.
Adherence of the Moroccan diet to the Mediterranean diet
Several studies have been conducted in Morocco to assess adherence to the Mediterranean Diet (MD), but many focus on specific parameters, limiting the scope of their conclusions [52, 71, 96, 113, 114]. Through this review, we aim to provide an updated and comprehensive overview of the dietary patterns in Morocco, particularly in the face of various transitions such as urbanization, Westernization, and the COVID-19 pandemic. Although the pandemic introduced changes to food habits, the Moroccan population's adherence to the MD has persisted, continuing to attract attention for its health benefits and cultural significance.
Morocco is undergoing a nutritional transition, moving away from traditional diets and embracing more Westernized eating patterns. This shift necessitates updated food composition data to reflect current dietary habits. Unfortunately, there is a significant lack of reliable data on the nutrient composition of Moroccan foods, complicating dietary analysis and health studies. The first Moroccan Food Composition Table (FCT) was published in 1977, and since then, the food landscape has changed significantly. An updated version of the Moroccan Food Composition Tables has recently been released, providing a more reliable tool for nutrition research and addressing the need for current data [37].
Numerous studies, such as those by Sammoud et al., Rhazi et al., and Kinany et al. [9, 115, 116], have underscored the enduring adherence to the MD, even amid societal changes and health challenges. For instance, research highlights the significant role of health-conscious food choices among Moroccan women, reinforcing the continued commitment to the MD [23, 113, 117, 118]. Even during the COVID-19 pandemic, Moroccans have sought traditional, authentic products driven by symbolic rather than purely rational criteria. These trends suggest promising opportunities for promoting organic and local products in Morocco.
Additionally, as noted in several prior studies, the Mediterranean group experienced a general shift away from the traditional MD pattern across various study periods. However, this deviation became less pronounced between 1961–1965 and 2004–2011, indicating a slowed departure from the MD in recent years, as observed by da Silva et al. [119]. The most significant decline in MD adherence was found in Mediterranean Europe, Southern Mediterranean, and Central Europe, with Mediterranean Europe showing the most critical deterioration. At the same time, the Southern Mediterranean region maintained the highest adherence. This divergence resulted in an increasing gap in adherence levels between the two areas. However, adherence to the MD declined significantly from 1961–1965 to 2000–2003, 2004–2011 [120].
Moreover, Morocco’s dedication to preserving the MD was recognized internationally through its integration into UNESCO’s list of intangible cultural heritage. As part of Morocco’s collaboration with the EU and UNESCO, this commitment emphasizes the importance of maintaining and promoting the MD as a cultural tradition and a key contributor to public health [121].
Conclusions
Morocco has experienced significant demographic, economic, and health transformations that have influenced its dietary landscape. Factors such as urbanization, globalization, and the availability of processed foods have contributed to a gradual diversification of food choices. The COVID-19 pandemic further highlighted the resilience of the MD. Despite these shifts, the Mediterranean Diet (MD) remains deeply rooted in Moroccan culture, serving as a culinary tradition, a religious practice, and a way of life. The resilience of this diet underscores its cultural importance and the Moroccan population's strong adherence to it, even amid societal changes and modernization.
While the MD continues to provide a foundation for healthy eating habits, Morocco's ongoing nutritional transition calls for updated tools to monitor dietary patterns and nutrient intake. The recent update of the Moroccan Food Composition Tables (FCT) represents a crucial step toward ensuring more accurate nutritional assessments. Nevertheless, additional national studies are needed to better understand the complex dynamics influencing the country's dietary behaviors, particularly as the availability of Westernized foods increases.
In light of these challenges, it is vital to promote sustainable agricultural practices, encourage local food production, and raise awareness of the health benefits associated with the MD. As the MD gains international recognition as an intangible cultural heritage, Morocco has the opportunity to preserve this diet not only as a symbol of its cultural identity but also as a means to ensure the long-term health and well-being of its population. By fostering a balance between tradition and modernity, Morocco can continue to champion the MD as a model of sustainable and health-conscious eating.
Author contributions
The authors confirm their contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design: A. BOUHOUDAN, Z. ZIAN; data collection: A. BOUHOUDAN; analysis and interpretation of results: A. BOUHOUDAN, Z. ZIAN, M. KHADDOR, N. MOURABIT; draft manuscript preparation: A. BOUHOUDAN. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Funding
No funds, grants, or other support was received.
Data availability
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Abbreviations
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
Mediterranean diet
World Health Organization
Food and agriculture organization
International network of food data systems
Microgram
Milligram
International units
Food composition tables
National nutrition strategy
National Human Development Initiative
Green morocco plan
Green generation strategy
Noncommunicable diseases
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Abstract
Morocco, a culturally diverse nation, presents a culinary tapestry influenced by regional variations, geography, and historical heritage. The Mediterranean diet, rooted in Morocco's culinary heritage, emphasizes the consumption of high-quality fresh produce, unsaturated fats, and whole grains while promoting social interactions. This literature review analyzed Moroccan dietary patterns and their adherence to the Mediterranean Diet (MD), incorporating societal changes and COVID-19 impacts. Data from various sources, including scientific databases and gray literature, were collected and analyzed to identify trends and factors influencing dietary habits in Morocco. Societal changes, the influences of globalization, and recent changes influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic have highlighted the evolution of consciousness toward health-conscious consumption by favoring local, organic, and rich-nutrient products. Moroccans demonstrate remarkable resilience in preserving their culinary traditions and adherence to the Mediterranean diet principles. Despite the challenges posed by demographic changes and economic developments, the Moroccan diet remains resilient and consistent, reflecting a harmonious blend of tradition, nutrition, and cultural identity. Government initiatives to promote healthy eating align with the principles of the Mediterranean diet, striving to integrate nutritional considerations into broader development strategies. This review aims to provide valuable insights for various stakeholders in Morocco and similar regions, contributing to a better understanding of dietary habits and promoting sustainable food systems.
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Neither ProQuest nor its licensors make any representations or warranties with respect to the translations. The translations are automatically generated "AS IS" and "AS AVAILABLE" and are not retained in our systems. PROQUEST AND ITS LICENSORS SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ANY AND ALL EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION, ANY WARRANTIES FOR AVAILABILITY, ACCURACY, TIMELINESS, COMPLETENESS, NON-INFRINGMENT, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Your use of the translations is subject to all use restrictions contained in your Electronic Products License Agreement and by using the translation functionality you agree to forgo any and all claims against ProQuest or its licensors for your use of the translation functionality and any output derived there from. Hide full disclaimer
Details
; Zian, Zeineb 2
; Khaddor, Mustapha 3 ; Mourabit, Nadira 1
1 Faculty of Sciences and Techniques of Al-Hoceima, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Laboratory of Research and Development in Engineering Sciences, Tetouan, Morocco (GRID:grid.251700.1) (ISNI:0000 0001 0675 7133)
2 Faculty of Sciences and Techniques of Tangier, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Intelligent Automation & BioMed Genomics (IABL), Tetouan, Morocco (GRID:grid.251700.1) (ISNI:0000 0001 0675 7133)
3 Regional Center for Careers Education and Training of Tangier, Tangier, Morocco (GRID:grid.251700.1)