Sustainable Development Strategies and Good Agricultural Practices for Enhancing Agricultural Productivity: Insights and Applicability in Developing Contexts—The Case of Angola

Abstract

In general, agricultural productivity in Angola is low due to the limited awareness among stakeholders regarding sustainable development strategies (DSs) and good agricultural practices (GAPs) that could be adjusted to local crops, soil types, and climatic conditions. A structured approach was followed to develop a systematic literature review (SLR) that can address this gap by examining how DSs and GAPs may be adapted for Angola’s context to encourage sustainable agricultural development. Key steps included the selection and exclusion of literature from primary scientific databases based on specific screening indicators such as the publication date, language, relevance to DSs and GAPs, and geographic focus on developing or developed nations with comparable agricultural challenges. The initial search resulted in 11,392 articles, of which 4257 met the primary selection criteria. After further screening for relevance and availability, 98 articles were shortlisted, and 15 studies were ultimately included for in-depth analysis. This strict screening process ensured the inclusion of studies most applicable to Angola’s agricultural context. The key research findings indicate that certain DSs and GAPs have high adaptability potential for Angola. The findings emphasise practices such as drip irrigation and inorganic fertilisation, which are widely implemented in both developed and developing countries due to their efficiency in resource-limited environments. Additional strategies, such as water management systems, organic composting, and agroforestry practices, demonstrate significant potential to enhance soil fertility, water efficiency, and crop resilience against climate variability. By identifying these practices and strategies, this study provides a basic framework for policymakers in Angola to develop targeted implementation guidelines, fostering sustainable agricultural growth and resilience in the face of climatic challenges. Thus, this review contributes to the scientific and practical understanding of sustainable agriculture in developing countries, offering critical insights that support Angola’s efforts to achieve greater self-sufficiency and economic stability through sustainable agricultural practices.

1. Introduction

In recent years, the Angolan government has implemented encouraging policies to recover land to boost the agricultural sector, abandoned by Portuguese farmers due to the armed struggle and national farmers due to the 27-year civil war throughout the country. The creation of economic policies in the country in the late 1980s and early 1990s encouraged farmers to acquire land. There was a significant increase in large-scale land acquisition with the end of the civil war after 2002. These occurred in conjunction with the emergence of large agricultural projects coordinated by the state, often by foreign contractors, for national food products, involving plans for upstream and downstream links to the agricultural processing and manufacturing initiative [1].

The great need for the Angolan government to minimise its dependence on imports and the rapid increase in exports of products that can be produced in Angola are two of the objectives that have led the government to implement budgetary policies to make the agricultural sector more robust [2]. During the colonial period, the country had a large agricultural production capacity, which boosted exports. The production of coffee, sisal, corn, bananas, tobacco, and cassava was self-sufficient for domestic consumption. From the early 1990s to the present day, Angola suffered a decline in agricultural production due to the civil war. Unfortunately, the agricultural sector has never developed further, and the country is dependent on imports of basic food products [3].

Today, Angola’s agricultural growth is notorious. It is the sector with the second highest production, contributes 9.4% to the Gross domestic product (GDP), and can employ 50.7% of the workforce [4].

Small farmers are regarded as the key to global sustainable development, but agricultural policy is rarely in place as in Angola [5], where small farmers account for 92% of the area sown and 80% of production [6]. In Huambo, Kwanza Sul, Huíla, Bié, and Benguela, cereals are the fastest growing crop in agricultural production every year, as they are one of the most consumed products [7].

No agricultural production is possible without land, and land is a limited resource for agriculture [8]. Angola is large, with a geographical area of 124,700,000 hectares of land, which can be difficult to control, and of which approximately 5 million hectares have arable land suitable for farming and can contribute significantly to economic development. It is estimated that 35,000,000 hectares are arable, which makes up 28.2% of the total national territory [9].

The country has many natural resources, such as fertile soils for agriculture and fresh water, for irrigating varieties of crops such as corn, beans, potatoes, and soybeans [10].

The Angolan government signed a partnership with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 2018 to promote the innovation of more profitable agricultural systems, expanding farmer field schools throughout the country, strengthening farmers with agrarian systems resilient to the impacts of extreme droughts and climate change, and promoting resilience and sustainable land management in agropastoral communities by supporting the Government of Angola in the development of Global Environmental Fund (GEF) projects [11]. The National Development Plan (NDP) aims to promote research and development in the agricultural sector through government initiatives in cooperation with academics, researchers, and farmers. The NDP outlines policies and lines of force to invest in and boost the agricultural sector with more robust budgets. In all the budgets, the agricultural sector always had a very mitigated share, with prioritisation of the social sector, education (15.5%), and health (13.5%). The economic sector absorbed 11.9% of the primary fiscal expenditure and 4.9% of total expenditure, which corresponds to a reduction of 38.2% compared to the budget allocated in the previous General State Budget (GSB). In 2022, the agricultural sector contributed 5.2 billion Angolan Kwanza (AOA) annually [12]. To deal with the challenge of increasing agricultural production capacity and providing an abundant supply of national products to meet food and security needs and promote exports, the Angolan government has enshrined the following agricultural development policies in the NDP 2023–2027: (i) supporting agriculture and family farming; (ii) building infrastructure for the development of commercial agriculture—developing hydraulics and rural engineering actions to support production; (iii) building infrastructure for the commercial and agricultural development of small farmers; (iv) continuing with the implementation of the family farming and market access project—the SAMAP project, including the technical assistance component; (v) supporting agricultural extension and rural development actions; and (vi) activating the agricultural development and marketing projects for small farmers in the provinces of Kwanza Sul and Huíla, including the family farming and market access project [12].

Productivity failures in the agricultural sector result, for example, from the inadequate way in which organic or inorganic fertilisers [13], soils, seeds, and irrigation techniques are used. To mitigate these failures, many developing African countries have introduced agricultural DS (promoting foreign investment in the agricultural sector) into their development plans to increase production [14]. GAPs are important in these countries because they minimise environmental impacts, promote the economy, and guarantee food security now and in the future [15].

In the context of sustainable agriculture, existing research has broadly addressed development strategies (DSs) and good agricultural practices (GAPs) across various regions. Studies from developed countries frequently highlight the adoption of advanced irrigation systems, organic fertilisation, and soil conservation methods for increased agricultural productivity and sustainability [16,17]. Conversely, research in developing countries has primarily focused on basic GAP adaptations to local contexts, such as the integration of agroforestry and soil management to counter climate variability, as seen in recent studies on sub-Saharan agriculture [18,19]. While these studies offer valuable insights, they often lack specificity regarding the adaptation of such practices for Angola, a country facing environmental challenges and dependent on imported agricultural products.

This research presents two main innovations. First, it conducts a targeted systematic review to identify and evaluate DSs and GAPs specifically relevant to Angola’s agricultural sector, differentiating this review from analyses conducted in other African countries. This study focuses on providing a framework that addresses Angola’s specific agricultural constraints, including limited infrastructure, land reclamation, and climate challenges. Second, by incorporating both quantitative and qualitative analyses of the last five years, this study bridges knowledge gaps in sustainable practices for developing countries with conditions similar to Angola. This approach ensures that policymakers and stakeholders are guided by evidence-based strategies specifically applicable to Angola’s context. Thus, the primary contributions of this research are threefold: (1) it systematically categorises relevant DSs and GAPs, enabling a more distinct understanding of their potential impact on Angola’s agricultural productivity; (2) it identifies gaps in the existing research concerning adaptation strategies for Angola, thus promoting a focused research agenda for the scientific community; and (3) it provides a practical guide for policymakers and stakeholders in Angola, outlining specific DSs and GAPs that are both feasible and sustainable in the local context. Collectively, these contributions establish a foundation for future agricultural development initiatives tailored to Angola’s socio-economic, technological, and environmental needs.

2. Methods

To systematically extract and analyse key information about development strategies (DSs) and good agricultural practices (GAPs), a structured data extraction framework was designed. For data extraction, a set of extraction criteria was developed, targeting information specific to DSs and GAPs, including (1) the type and description of strategies or practices, (2) geographic context (developed or developing countries), (3) specific outcomes or reported impacts, (4) challenges in implementation, and (5) reported environmental and economic benefits. Each article was carefully reviewed, and relevant data were recorded in a structured table, categorising findings under each criterion. To ensure consistency, two reviewers independently extracted data and resolved discrepancies through discussion, allowing for the accurate capture of relevant details across diverse sources.

For analysis, a qualitative content analysis was applied to identify recurring themes and patterns across DSs and GAPs discussed in the literature. The extracted data were coded based on shared characteristics or impacts, such as water management practices, soil conservation methods, and crop-specific strategies. A thematic synthesis approach was used to categorise these codes into overarching themes, enabling the identification of commonly adopted DSs and GAPs across different regions and contexts. A quantitative method was employed to highlight the prevalence of specific practices (e.g., drip irrigation and organic fertilisation) within developed versus developing country contexts.

This combined qualitative–quantitative approach allowed for a comprehensive synthesis of DSs and GAPs, providing insights into which strategies are the most adaptable to Angola’s agricultural context. Additionally, the synthesis facilitated the development of a set of specific recommendations for Angola’s policymakers, emphasising practices that align with the country’s socio-economic conditions and climate challenges.

The SLR promotes various types of knowledge for different review users. The reports must be clear, complete, and precise about why and how the review was performed (how studies were identified and selected), and which were the main results (such as the characteristics of the contributing studies and the results of meta-analyses) [20]. Science Direct was the main database used in this review. The literature search topics included SDs and GAPs, in developed and developing countries. Although this study focuses on Angola, studies from other regions were considered to provide diversity and comparative capacity to the review. The abstracts of the selected articles were analysed to determine their relevance and suitability for the study. The bibliographic references of these articles also provided another source for other relevant articles. The search terms used included the following: “best agricultural”; “agriculture”; “developed countries”; “countries”; “Africa”; “good agricultural”; “practices”; and “developing countries”, using the Boolean operators “AND” and “OR” to combine the above search terms to yield the desired search outcomes. The articles included in the SLR describe DSs and GAPs in developed and developing countries. The articles met the following inclusion criteria: (1) the document discussed and focused on DSs, (2) the article was published between 2019 and 2024, (3) the document described GAPs, (4) the study was on the agricultural sector in general, e.g., crops, irrigation systems, and agricultural practices, and (5) the study, examining scenarios of DSs and GAPs in developing and developing countries, was written in English. The exclusion criteria were based on factors such as the following: (1) the article was older than 2019, (2) the document discussed environmental waste management and environmental conservation in different countries, (3) the study was not performed in the agricultural sector, (4) the study information was not available in full, and (5) the study was written in a language other than English (Appendix A).

The initial search using strings identified a total of 11,392 articles from the years 2019 to 2024. Next, 941 review articles and 3316 research articles were considered, making a total of 4257 excluded articles. A total of 58 articles were excluded with a title from the field of Marine Policy, 41 from the field of Extractive Industries and Society, and 60 from the field of Psychology. The selection process began with a review of the titles of 1303 articles and continued with a review of the titles and abstracts. A total of 1208 documents were excluded for being irrelevant to the topic. The screening process produced 98 documents eligible for full-text review (Figure 1). In addition, the references of the remaining documents were searched manually to identify any documents not captured during the initial search. This study evaluates DSs and GAPs in developed and developing countries. The articles selected cover different regions. The distribution of studies by continent includes five in Asia, two in Europe, and ten in Africa. Methodologically, the studies employed qualitative (n = 9), quantitative (n = 4), and mixed methods (n = 2). DSs were studied in 9 articles, and GAPs, in 6.

The selection resulted in the inclusion of 15 documents to analyse DSs and GAPs (Table 1 and Table 2). All the studies are specifically related to DSs and GAPs in developed and developing countries. A list of the studies, including their titles, types, and sources, can be found in Appendix A. The PRISMA Checklist can be found in the Supplementary Materials.

3. Development Strategies and Good Agricultural Practices in Developed and Developing Countries

Table 1 shows the DSs and GAPs and their descriptions in developed countries, and Table 2 shows those in developing countries.

When examining the DSs and GAPs adopted in different countries, it is essential to consider the underlying reasons and influencing factors driving these choices. In developed countries, the adoption of advanced irrigation systems, precision farming technologies, and organic fertilisation practices is often driven by the availability of resources, technological infrastructure, and regulatory incentives focused on environmental sustainability. For instance, countries like the Netherlands and Spain have implemented subsidies and policies that encourage organic farming and precision irrigation, reflecting both a high level of technological readiness and a strong emphasis on reducing environmental impacts [16].

In contrast, developing countries such as Ghana and Tanzania primarily adopt GAPs focused on resource efficiency and basic infrastructure improvements, like agroforestry and simple water conservation techniques. This divergence is influenced by factors such as limited access to technology, financial constraints, and the dependence on smallholder farming systems, which are supported by low-cost, adaptable practices [18]. In many cases, the absence of financial and technical support inhibits the adoption of high-tech solutions, leading these countries to prioritise practices that maximise resource use and crop resilience under challenging conditions.

Climate conditions also play a significant role in shaping the selection of DSs and GAPs. In regions facing recurrent droughts, such as parts of Ethiopia and Kenya, water management practices like drip irrigation and soil conservation techniques are prioritised to mitigate water scarcity impacts. In contrast, temperate regions with stable rainfall patterns may invest less in water-intensive GAPs and instead focus on optimising yields through nutrient management and crop rotation.

Moreover, the policy environment and international partnerships significantly impact the development of sustainable practices. For example, developing countries that have partnered with international organisations, such as FAO and UNEP, have been able to implement GAPs that focus on sustainable land use and climate-resilient farming. In Angola, the partnership with FAO has led to initiatives that aim to integrate sustainable practices into local agriculture, although these efforts are still in the early stages.

This analysis suggests that DSs and GAPs in each country are shaped by a combination of economic, environmental, and policy factors, which influence the feasibility and prioritisation of specific agricultural practices. Understanding these factors provides essential insights for policymakers in Angola, as it highlights the need for both external support and targeted investments in infrastructure to enhance the applicability of these practices.

Thus, in addition to identifying effective DSs and GAPs from the literature, this research highlights their practical significance for agricultural development in Angola and similar developing countries. Key practices such as drip irrigation and inorganic fertilisation hold particular relevance for Angola, where water scarcity and nutrient-poor soils present ongoing challenges. Drip irrigation, for example, provides a targeted and water-efficient approach that could help smallholder farmers manage limited water resources effectively, increasing crop yields while reducing water wastage. This is especially significant for Angola, where access to consistent water sources is often limited, and traditional irrigation methods may not be sustainable under conditions of climate variability. The implementation of sustainable irrigation technologies is crucial for regions facing water scarcity, such as Mediterranean climates. The self-regulating low energy clay tube irrigation system (SLECI), for instance, demonstrates superior water efficiency compared to traditional drip systems. Studies conducted in Portugal have shown that SLECI significantly reduces water use while maintaining crop productivity, highlighting its potential for application in Angola’s arid regions. Micro-irrigation techniques, such as SLECI, optimize water use, reduce evaporation losses, and help farmers sustain crop yields even in water-limited environments. These technologies represent a promising approach for Angola’s agricultural sector, where efficient water management is critical for productivity and resilience [68]. Also, DSs enable farmers to be trained in climate change, fertiliser addition and pre-planting techniques, the application of irrigation systems focused on regional crops, the promotion of organic farming, good drip irrigation habits, the promotion of technological policies in agriculture and actions that mitigate soil degradation (reducing the use of chemical fertilisers and machinery), the application of GAPs related to seeds, and regular maintenance of agricultural infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and water reservoirs.

Some DSs and GAPs that can be applied are as follows: develop the cultivation of cereals, vegetables, beans, and potatoes in agroforests (agroforestry practice); apply the system of soaking soils and then dredging for rice cultivation (agricultural practice without flooding); apply crop residues, animal food waste, municipal waste, and industrial waste (agricultural composting practice) to increase the suitability of agricultural soils; sustain water supplies and increase water infiltration and water storage capacity in wetlands or soils and aquifer recharge, extending the life of reservoirs by reducing runoff (agricultural water management practice); grow grains, vegetables, tubers, and oilseeds as cover crops; carry out scheduled irrigation through wastewater reuse; and schedule cropping calendars through windbreak crop varieties (agricultural practices resilient to climate change) for sustainable agriculture.

Furthermore, agroforestry and soil conservation practices offer long-term solutions for soil degradation, a common problem in sub-Saharan Africa due to over-cultivation and deforestation. By integrating trees and shrubs within agricultural landscapes, agroforestry not only enhances soil health but also provides additional sources of income through products like fruits and timber. This approach supports Angola’s agricultural sector by promoting sustainable land use and improving farm resilience to climate-related impacts, such as droughts and soil erosion.

The application of these DSs and GAPs in Angola can foster greater food security and economic stability, as they align with national goals to reduce reliance on imported food products. By adopting these practices, Angola could enhance its self-sufficiency in essential crops, stabilise local food prices, and improve the livelihoods of rural communities dependent on agriculture. Additionally, by focusing on adaptable, low-cost strategies that can be scaled to larger operations, these DSs and GAPs present a viable roadmap for other developing nations with similar resource and infrastructure constraints.

Policymakers in Angola can leverage these findings to formulate evidence-based agricultural policies that prioritise resource-efficient and climate-resilient practices. Implementing targeted subsidies for sustainable practices and providing training programs on GAPs could further accelerate the adoption of these practices among smallholder farmers, fostering a more resilient and productive agricultural sector.

4. Discussion

Regarding development strategies in developed countries, 11 articles were analysed. Table 1 shows the development strategies applied in the agricultural sector and how they have been developed.

It was found that the most common DS in developed countries focuses on using a more efficient irrigation system and promoting the application of organic fertilisers rather than inorganic ones to promote soil health.

In developed countries, farmers’ demand for irrigation water has led governments to develop more modern water distribution technology. The strategy for using a more efficient irrigation system involves irrigation planning to ensure water use, applying irrigation directly where necessary [69], and ensuring the efficient fulfilment of crop irrigation needs in a well-defined location to promote the yield, quality, and efficiency of water use [70].

Regarding the strategy of applying organic fertiliser instead of inorganic, the literature highlights that there is a link between environmental symbiosis and the adoption of organic fertilisers. This strategy involves incorporating manure and previous crop residues; planting trees alongside crops can improve soil fertility by fixing nitrogen and creating soil organic matter [69].

The GAPs conducted in developed countries first include the practice of drip irrigation. Interest in the practice of drip irrigation in these countries has arisen because the need for water is greater and the availability of water is lower due to the global drought that has hit several countries. Irrigation practices are based on the availability of water for the crops and the moisture in the soil. For better water management, records are kept of the amount of water used for irrigation, the details of the crops, the date of irrigation, the duration of irrigation, and the amount spent [70].

Another GAP practice in developed countries is the application of inorganic fertilisers, which are applied after or before sowing by hand or mechanically.

Regarding development strategies in developing countries that are common to those in developed countries, this research revealed only two articles dealing with development strategies in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Ghana. Table 1 describes the agricultural water management and distribution strategies that are common in these countries. The surveys presented in the same articles show that GAPs in drip irrigation are widespread in both developed and developing countries and have boosted the agricultural sector in these countries.

Regarding GAPs in the use of inorganic fertilisers in developing countries, they also stand out as those used in developed countries.

The analysis of the results of studies carried out on DSs and GAPs retrieved from the SLR showed that the main drivers and practitioners of DSs and GAPs are farmers in developed countries, due to the need for food and major global climate change. Farmers will not be able to solve the challenges of agricultural DSs and GAPs on their own; public and governmental efforts are needed in partnership with FAO, UNEP, and UNDP in the agricultural production chain.

Although developed countries have the same challenge of promoting DSs and good agricultural practices, China’s technological development has led their government to apply a strategy of modernising traditional agriculture. France is applying agroecological transition strategies through transformative adaptive action, and, in South Africa, an early warning system has been adopted to help farmers prevent possible agricultural disasters. While these strategies are important for other countries, Togo, Benin, and Tanzania are promoting rice development strategies.

In most developing countries, irrigated agriculture is considered an essential strategy for achieving sustainable development goals [71], and the use of inorganic fertilisers has a positive impact on the economic and social aspects of farmers, given the adaptations to global climate change.

Economic, political, and technological conditions have been the main barriers preventing developing countries, particularly Angola, from applying these strategies. To this end, these countries can gradually apply DSs according to economic and technological developments. In developing countries, particularly in Angola, DSs enable farmers to be trained in climate change, fertiliser addition and pre-planting techniques, the application of irrigation systems focused on regional crops, the promotion of organic farming, good drip irrigation habits, the promotion of technological policies in agriculture and actions that mitigate soil degradation (reducing the use of chemical fertilisers and machinery), the application of GAPs related to seeds, and regular maintenance of agricultural infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and water reservoirs.

To develop sustainable, environmentally friendly agriculture and take a significant step forward in agricultural production compared to developed countries, it is necessary for developing countries to opt for the following strategies:

• Mechanised and sustainable agriculture: This minimises efforts in heavy work, mitigates the shortage of agricultural labour, improves productivity and punctuality in agricultural operations, and is more efficient in the production of crop varieties [45];

• Technological innovation in agriculture: This allows the creation of a national industry with great capacity to produce conservation agriculture equipment, equipment for sowing, and irrigation equipment; measure the nutritional components of plants; and distribute agricultural fertilisers for planting by hand or animal traction [72,73];

• Working with the FAO: This is the only organisation that has the expertise and a wide range of experience in supporting countries to develop policies, strategies, and technologies for the sustainable intensification of cereal production. For example, “Save and Grow” is one of the programs implemented by the FAO that aims to boost the global transition to sustainable agriculture and will help build the world without hunger that we all want [53];

• Seed production and varieties: They promote sustainable agriculture, food sources, the basis for agricultural production, and the source of food and nutrition for planet Earth, ensuring a safe and subsistence diet for farming communities. The variety of seeds allows the agricultural food chain to withstand different climatic shocks and environmental conditions and soils [74];

• Increasing support for research for agricultural development: This meets the scientific needs in agriculture and mitigates the political and technological needs in agricultural production in general and for small farmers. In developing countries, research is increasing in the areas of biotechnology, modernisation, and agricultural forecasting. Increases in agricultural production, the conservation of natural resources, knowledge related to crop diversification, and the promotion of crops with greater value on the international market, are acquired through scientific research in agriculture [53];

• Strategy on climate change: This implementation promotes resilient agriculture and adaptability to climate change and extreme weather conditions, contributes to a robust economy and lowers greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, and provides healthy nutritious food for people and animals without leaving anyone behind [75].

Agricultural development strategies can promote information about possible climate changes and thus plan crops that are resilient to these changes, reduce the consumption of inorganic fertilisers and use organic fertilisers with their own resources, and save more water and adopt economical irrigation measures such as drip irrigation, environmental protection, and food safety.

Good agricultural practices centred on the drip irrigation system and the use of inorganic fertilisers with modern technology are the most common in developed countries. Although these GAPs are applied in the development of agriculture in these countries with modern technology, it is necessary for developing countries to apply sustainable and environmentally friendly GAPs to take a significant step forward to those applied in the developed countries:

• Farming practices without flooding: This practice is more advantageous in rice cultivation, as it allows water management for irrigation compared to the practice of flooding rice paddies. Growing rice and wheat on irrigated raised beds significantly improves water use efficiency and increases yields [26];

• Agroforestry practices: Cultivated in regions with frequent droughts, no groundwater available for irrigation, and rocky terrain with little soil, rice and maize are grown on timber (commercialised) soils, mitigating environmental risks, promoting good permanent soil cover against erosion, mitigating flood damage, serving as a catalyst for water storage, and benefiting crops and pastures [76,77,78,79]. Trees improve the microclimate, increase the availability of water for main or primary crops, protect pests by supporting biodiversity, and their pruning allows the efficient entry of organic carbon into the soil’s organic carbon reserves [80];

• Agricultural composting practice: This helps maintain soil fertility and sustainable production and improves the chemical–physical properties of soils. Soils become more resistant to the stresses of drought and toxicity, and crop nutrient absorption improves. These advantages increase farmers’ income and minimise the use of inorganic fertilisers and the purchase of inorganic fertilisers by farmers [81]. Farmers can produce quality organic fertilisers rich in carbon and nitrogen locally [82];

• Agricultural water management practice: This prevents flooding, promotes water infiltration, increases the storage capacity in wetlands, strengthens aquifers, mitigates the need for irrigation in dry seasons, increases the lifespan of reservoirs, and reduces water runoff [83];

• Agricultural practice of cover crops: This enables soil resilience in the face of constant global climate change, protects main crops from very heavy rains, maintains the quality of agricultural soils, and increases farmers’ productivity (crops will be less vulnerable to environmental impacts) [84];

• Agricultural practices resilient to climate change: This reduces water loss through evaporation and flooding when watering is done at dawn and dusk, increases water use efficiency for crops, promotes additional nutrients in crops, and increases yields in agricultural production. Water treatment mitigates the need for water in times of scarcity or cyclical droughts and the planting of trees in rows protects crops from large vectors and animals from cold and heat [67].

Developing countries can develop the cultivation of cereals, vegetables, beans, and potatoes in agroforests (agroforestry practice) [80], apply the system of soaking soils and then dredging for rice cultivation (agricultural practice without flooding) [28], apply crop residues, animal food waste, municipal waste, and industrial waste (agricultural composting practice) [81] to increase the suitability of agricultural soils, sustain water supplies, increase water infiltration and water storage capacity in wetlands or soils and aquifer recharge, and extend the life of reservoirs by reducing runoff (agricultural water management practice) [83], grow grains, vegetables, tubers, and oilseeds as cover crops [84] and carry out scheduled irrigation through wastewater reuse, and schedule cropping calendars through windbreak crop varieties (agricultural practices resilient to climate change) [67] for sustainable agriculture.

The application of the identified DSs and GAPs directly addresses several critical practical challenges faced by agriculture in developing countries. The integration of drip irrigation systems provides a water-efficient solution, which is particularly relevant for regions where water scarcity limits agricultural productivity. By delivering water directly to the root zone, drip irrigation reduces evaporation and runoff, thereby conserving water resources and enhancing crop yields even in arid or semi-arid conditions, common across many parts of sub-Saharan Africa.

In terms of soil health, the use of inorganic and organic fertilisers as part of a GAP framework addresses the widespread issue of nutrient-poor soils. Many developing countries experience declining soil fertility due to overuse and lack of replenishment, which significantly reduces agricultural output. The strategic application of fertilisers, combined with agroforestry practices, enriches soil nutrients and improves soil structure, leading to higher crop resilience and sustainable yield improvements.

Agroforestry also offers an effective means of mitigating environmental degradation, a common issue in regions susceptible to deforestation and land erosion. By incorporating trees and shrubs within agricultural landscapes, agroforestry promotes biodiversity, prevents soil erosion, and stabilises microclimates, creating more favourable conditions for crop growth. This practice supports long-term agricultural sustainability and helps smallholder farmers manage the environmental risks associated with climate change. Agricultural practices that promote biodiversity, such as intercropping and conserving semi-natural habitats, can greatly enhance ecosystem services, including pollination, pest control, and soil health. For example, studies in viticulture show that diverse plant species in inter-rows support beneficial organisms that regulate pests and improve soil fertility. To effectively measure such benefits, comprehensive biodiversity assessments are recommended, incorporating multi-level indicators like genetic, species, and habitat diversity. These assessment methods support the development of tailored, sustainable practices that safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem services. In Angola, adopting these biodiversity-friendly practices could enhance agricultural resilience and offer a sustainable model for local development [85,86]. Furthermore, water management systems, such as rainwater harvesting and controlled irrigation, offer practical solutions for unpredictable rainfall patterns, which are becoming more frequent due to climate change. These systems enable farmers to capture and store rainwater during the rainy season, ensuring a stable water supply during the dry season. As a result, farmers can maintain consistent crop production, enhancing food security and reducing the economic vulnerability of agricultural communities.

By adopting these DSs and GAPs, developing countries can address fundamental agricultural constraints—such as limited water resources, degraded soils, and environmental instability—while promoting a transition toward sustainable and resilient farming systems. For policymakers, these strategies provide actionable pathways to enhance agricultural productivity, reduce import dependency, and improve the livelihoods of rural populations who rely on farming.

The implementation of the proposed DSs and GAPs will have specific impacts on different stakeholders within the agricultural sector:

• -. Farmers: For smallholder farmers, the adoption of practices like drip irrigation and organic fertilisation offers both immediate and long-term benefits. In the short term, these practices can increase crop yields and reduce water usage, thus providing higher incomes and lower production costs. Over the long term, sustainable practices such as agroforestry improve soil health and resilience against climate variability, thereby securing farmers’ livelihoods. However, the initial costs and training requirements may pose challenges, highlighting the need for accessible financial and educational support.

• -. Agricultural enterprises: Enterprises involved in agricultural production and supply chains will benefit from increased consistency in product quality and yield. With stable water and soil management practices, these enterprises can plan more effectively, reduce production risks, and expand their market reach. Agroforestry and organic practices also enable companies to meet the rising demand for sustainably produced goods, providing competitive advantages in domestic and export markets. However, some enterprises may need to invest in new technologies and adapt their processes, which could incur initial capital expenses.

• -. Government departments: For government agencies, these strategies offer clear pathways to strengthen national food security, reduce dependence on imported agricultural products, and meet environmental sustainability targets. By supporting farmers with subsidies, training programs, and infrastructure investments, governments can foster a more resilient agricultural sector that contributes to economic stability and rural employment. The long-term environmental benefits of these practices also align with government efforts to mitigate climate change impacts and promote land conservation.

• -. Consumers: For consumers, these DSs and GAPs ultimately lead to a more reliable food supply and price stability. Sustainable practices reduce the volatility of food production caused by droughts or poor soil health, thereby enhancing food security. Additionally, consumers benefit from the availability of locally produced, higher-quality food products, which may also be healthier due to the reduction in chemical inputs. As consumer awareness of sustainability grows, this could also drive demand for products produced with environmentally friendly methods, creating a positive feedback loop that supports sustainable agriculture.

• -. Other third parties: The adoption of sustainable DSs and GAPs engages various third-party stakeholders: financial institutions provide essential funding, enabling farmers to invest in sustainable tools and practices; agricultural technology providers supply the necessary equipment and training for effective implementation; NGOs offer technical support and reach for favourable policies, while research institutions develop and test DSs and GAPs tailored to local conditions; distribution and refrigeration companies benefit from more reliable, high-quality products, optimising supply chain efficiency, while small stores gain access to consistent local produce. Collectively, these stakeholders play a critical role in facilitating the transition to sustainable agriculture, ensuring resource efficiency, resilience, and economic benefits across the agricultural supply chain. While these strategies require coordinated efforts and investment across stakeholder groups, the potential benefits are substantial. Farmers gain economic stability, enterprises achieve market and product resilience, governments fulfil sustainability mandates, and consumers enjoy greater food security and quality. Understanding these stakeholder-specific impacts is critical for designing policies and support systems that encourage the widespread adoption of sustainable practices. Each stakeholder’s involvement is critical for addressing challenges and ensuring the long-term viability of sustainable agriculture in developing contexts.

This analysis provides valuable information on little-researched aspects of DSs and GAPs in developing countries. Firstly, studies within developing countries, particularly African countries, have received less attention and need to be further explored to increase DSs in these countries. Secondly, the evaluation of sustainable GAPs in developing countries is an important topic for research. Thirdly, the sustainable agricultural practices proposed by the FAO need to be replicated in developing countries for sustainable agriculture.

In-depth research on these three aspects is necessary for a comprehensive assessment of the overall impact of DSs and GAPs on the development of the agricultural sector, considering the negative impacts that current agricultural practices have on the development of agricultural production. By understanding the impact of DSs and GAPs, we can identify areas where further improvements can be made to increase the effectiveness of agricultural development in developing countries.

However, the scientific community, policymakers, and the civil community in developing countries must make every effort to implement them to promote sustainable agricultural development.

Although the comprehensive search enabled articles to be retrieved, some articles with similar studies may have been missed because they were not indexed in the databases searched or were published on the websites of organisations, institutions, or scientific societies.

Manual searches for articles led to checking reference lists during the full-text screening process and using Google Scholar’s manual search engine to overcome these problems.

In addition, studies carried out in different countries that developed DSs and GAPs differently may not have been retrieved. In addition, DSs and GAPs may have been underestimated in some items. Most of the studies related to DSs and GAPs were carried out in developed countries.

Developing countries face different challenges in implementing sustainable DSs and GAPs due to structural obstacles that limit resources, infrastructure, and technical knowledge. Economic, political, and technological conditions have been the main barriers preventing developing countries, particularly Angola, from applying these strategies. Common obstacles include inadequate financial support, limited access to advanced agricultural technologies, and insufficient institutional frameworks to support large-scale adoption of sustainable practices. For instance, smallholder farmers in regions like sub-Saharan Africa often lack access to capital for purchasing essential resources such as drip irrigation systems or improved fertilisers, creating a barrier to adopting more efficient water and nutrient management practices.

Potential solutions to these obstacles lie in multi-tiered strategies that address resource constraints and knowledge gaps. Financially, micro-loan schemes and government-subsidised agricultural inputs could reduce the economic burden on small-scale farmers, allowing them to invest in sustainable practices. Technologically, partnerships with international organisations, such as FAO or UNEP, can facilitate access to appropriate, low-cost agricultural technologies and training. Establishing robust extension services is also critical, as these services can provide ongoing support and technical guidance, ensuring that farmers can effectively implement and sustain GAPs.

The impact of these strategies varies across different stakeholder groups. For smallholder farmers, adopting sustainable practices may initially increase labour demands and require upfront investments. However, long-term benefits include improved crop yields, reduced dependency on imported fertilisers, and increased resilience to climate-related shocks, all of which can enhance food security and income stability. For policymakers, supporting DSs and GAPs aligns with national goals to boost local food production, reduce import dependency, and meet climate targets. However, short-term costs must be balanced with these long-term gains, often requiring external funding and policy adjustments to sustain agricultural initiatives effectively.

Local communities also experience significant effects from sustainable agricultural strategies. Community-based programs that promote agroforestry or water conservation can enhance local environmental quality, stabilise ecosystems, and create jobs in regions that rely on agriculture. By fostering environmental management and supporting the economy of these communities, sustainable DSs and GAPs positively influence community resilience and economic health. In summary, while the implementation of sustainable agricultural strategies in developing countries is challenging, tailored financial, technological, and educational solutions can mitigate these obstacles. Policymakers, farmers, and local communities each stand to benefit from these efforts, making sustainable agriculture a viable path toward enhancing resilience and productivity in the agricultural sector. Thus, countries like Angola can gradually apply DSs according to their economic and technological developments. DSs allow farmers to receive training in climate change, fertiliser addition and pre-planting techniques, the application of irrigation systems focused on regional crops, the promotion of organic farming, good drip irrigation habits, the promotion of technological policies in agriculture, actions that mitigate soil degradation (reducing the use of chemical fertilisers and machinery), the application of GAPs related to seeds, and regular maintenance of agricultural infrastructure such as irrigation systems and water reservoirs.

While this study employed an SLR to synthesise relevant DSs and GAPs for application in Angola, there are several limitations to this approach. First, the SLR methodology relies on pre-existing studies, primarily from major databases like Science Direct and Web of Science, which are biased toward English-language publications. This limitation may result in the exclusion of relevant studies published in other languages, potentially omitting region-specific insights from non-English-speaking countries with similar agricultural challenges. Although the comprehensive search enabled articles to be retrieved, some articles with similar studies may have been missed because they were not indexed in the databases searched or were published on the websites of organisations, institutions, or scientific societies. Manual searches for articles led to checking reference lists during the full-text screening process and using Google Scholar’s manual search engine to overcome these problems.

Second, the analysis is constrained by the diversity and depth of the available literature. Studies on DSs and GAPs in developing countries are often limited in both number and scope, potentially skewing the results towards well-documented practices in a small subset of countries. This lack of representativeness may affect the generalisability of the findings, as not all identified strategies may be equally applicable or effective in Angola’s socio-economic, technological, educational, and environmental context.

Third, the SLR method synthesises findings from various contexts and research designs, which could introduce variability in data quality and outcomes. The absence of standardised metrics across studies means that practices deemed successful in one context may perform differently in Angola. This variability could influence the perceived effectiveness of certain GAPs and DSs when applied outside their original context.

The potential impact of these limitations may offset the alignment with Angola’s needs. Policymakers and stakeholders should interpret the findings, understanding that localised trials and adaptations will be required to ensure the successful implementation of these practices. Future studies should consider complementing the SLR with primary data collection in Angola, such as field trials and stakeholder interviews, to validate the applicability of identified strategies within the local agricultural sector.

5. Conclusions

The core focus of this research work was to identify and evaluate sustainable DSs and GAPs that can enhance Angola’s agricultural sector by increasing productivity, sustainability, and resilience against climate challenges. Through a systematic literature review, the study compiled evidence on DSs and GAPs from both developed and developing countries, selecting those most applicable to Angola’s agricultural conditions.

Key conclusions derived from this study highlight that practices such as drip irrigation, inorganic fertilisation, agroforestry, and water management systems have significant potential to address Angola’s agricultural constraints. These practices align with Angola’s goals to reduce reliance on imported food products and promote self-sufficiency. The analysis suggests that implementing these strategies, particularly with government and institutional support, can improve food security, stabilise local food prices, and enhance the livelihoods of rural communities engaged in farming.

The article summarises various DSs in the agricultural sector, including the strategy related to water management (prioritising irrigation water for high-value crops) and irrigation GAPs (drip irrigation). Although these DSs and GAPs are efficient, there is still a need for sustainable DSs and GAPs. Research strategies for agricultural development, strengthening seed systems, promoting technological innovation in agriculture, implementing new crops and varieties, developing countries’ cooperation in agriculture with the FAO and agricultural water management practices, irrigation without flooding, agroforestry practices, reducing in soil disturbance during cultivation, the practice of mowing and mulching, the practice of cover crops, and the practice of composting are suggested for sustainable agricultural development, in developing countries in particular and in Angola. Moreover, this research underscores the importance of tailored policy interventions, such as subsidising sustainable practices and investing in training programs for smallholder farmers. Such initiatives are critical for fostering the adoption of GAPs and DSs on a larger scale. By prioritising adaptable, low-cost practices, Angola can establish a roadmap toward sustainable agriculture, providing a replicable model for other developing nations with similar socio-economic and environmental conditions.

The application of DSs in developing countries promotes information on climate change and agricultural disasters, reducing the consumption of inorganic fertilisers and using organic fertilisers, saving more water, and providing food security. The GAPs allow these countries to grow crop varieties in agroforests, apply appropriate techniques for growing rice through non-flooding, reuse organic waste for soil fertility, manage water for irrigation and avoid wasting water, grow vegetables and other crops as cover crops, carry out program irrigation, and apply crops according to the agricultural calendar.

Studies related to DSs and GAPs in developing countries are still in their infancy. In most of the literature analysed, the authors did not explain how DSs and GAPs should be applied in developing countries. This led us to randomly search for this information in FAO, UNEP, and UNDP reports. No article was found that mentioned DSs and GAPs in Angola. In addition, the systematic review was carried out in developed and developing countries, with different climatic conditions and economies, different technology, and different rates of research in the agricultural sciences.

This study offers systematic insights into DSs and GAPs that hold potential for Angola and other developing countries with comparable agricultural profiles. For countries facing similar economic constraints and climate variability, a systematic approach to DS and GAP adoption is essential. Future research should focus on several key areas: (1) identifying cost-effective and context-specific GAPs that can be feasibly adopted by smallholder farmers, (2) evaluating the socio-economic impacts of these practices through longitudinal studies, and (3) conducting pilot programs that test the scalability of DSs in diverse climatic regions within a country. Moreover, inter-country collaboration with nations that have successfully implemented sustainable practices can provide practical models for adaptation. Shared research and knowledge exchanges between countries in sub-Saharan Africa, for example, could accelerate the identification of best practices and enhance resource-sharing initiatives. Establishing a regional database of DS and GAP outcomes would provide policymakers, researchers, and agricultural stakeholders with access to evidence-based strategies, facilitating a more unified approach toward sustainable agricultural development.

Future research should also explore the role of public–private partnerships and community-based initiatives in supporting DSs and GAPs, as these structures have shown success in addressing funding and resource distribution challenges. By refining these strategies and focusing on collaborative, evidence-based approaches, developing nations can foster sustainable agricultural practices that drive resilience and economic growth. Also, the barriers that prevent the adoption of DSs in the agricultural sector and GAPs in these countries must be analysed.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.E.E., P.D.G. and T.M.L.; methodology, E.E.E., P.D.G. and T.M.L.; software, E.E.E.; validation, P.D.G. and T.M.L.; formal analysis, P.D.G. and T.M.L.; investigation, E.E.E.; data curation, E.E.E.; writing—original draft preparation, E.E.E., P.D.G. and T.M.L.; writing—review and editing, P.D.G. and T.M.L.; supervision, P.D.G. and T.M.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The first author gratefully acknowledges the support of a PhD scholarship from the National Institute of Management and Scholarships of Angola, University of Namibe-Angola.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Figure and Tables

Figure 1. PRISMA flowchart illustrating the identification and screening process.

Table 1

DSs and GAPs in developed countries.

Country	Development Strategies	Good Agricultural Practices	Description
Spain [21]	Empowering farmers with the best agricultural practices resistant to cyclical climate change.	Irrigation system	Irrigation is done by surface and drip irrigation. Water is stored in reservoirs (all reservoirs can store water for three days), supplied by gravity systems [17].
	Create scientific and technological research policies capable of strengthening information related to underground water reservoirs.	Use of inorganic fertilisers	They are applied based on the type of crop and irrigation (artificial or natural), for example, on a hectare of (artificially) irrigated herbaceous crops 270 kg of nitrogen is applied, and for the same plot of land woody crops, 110 kg is applied. On rainfed soils with herbaceous crops, 96 kg of nitrogen is applied, and with woody crops, 51 kg of nitrogen is applied [16].
	Apply an irrigation system focused on vegetables, tree crops, and legumes, reducing wheat, corn, and alfalfa crops.
	Reuse of water for irrigation, application of water transfer systems, installation of water desalination systems, and increased pumping of groundwater.
Netherlands [22]	Promote organic farming for a broad transition to sustainable agriculture [23].	Improved manure application practices	Use of improved treatment techniques (e.g., separation of solids and urine), storage systems, and application techniques.
	Intensify awareness programs for farmers to adhere to the technology and good habits of drip irrigation, and protect their rights and duties through publicity and education [24].	Agroforest practices	Planting trees and shrubs in agricultural soils or pastoral areas
	Promote investment policies in agricultural impact storage technology, precision agricultural machinery, improved manure management, and optimised irrigation systems for better water management.	Biochar in the soil	It consists of applying charcoal to the soil through a very high-temperature pyrolysis process using biomass as raw material (animal manure, green crop residues, and wood waste).
	Reduce actions that create major impacts or degradation of agricultural soils (e.g., chemical fertilisers and pesticides) and promote the use of compost, microbial application, and mulching.	Legume rotation	Planting legumes and non-legumes in the same field to maintain soil fertility.
Philippines [25]	Provision of emergency seed buffer stocks to farmers and field schools for farmers throughout the country to foster agricultural development.	Small-scale community irrigation	The distribution of irrigation linked to reservoirs close to a river, which allows them to flood rice-growing areas, must be equitable for all farmers [26].
	Mobilise farmers to make efficient use of agricultural technologies and good practices related to seeds, planting, nutrient management, adhering to the harvest calendar, and water for irrigation.	Application of inorganic fertiliser	40 kg ha−1 of P2O5 equivalent and 40 kg ha−1 of K2O equivalent are applied using commercial P fertiliser (18% P2O5 equivalent, 10% sulphur, and 18% calcium oxide) and potassium chloride (60% K2O equivalent) [27].
	Improved access to high-quality inputs to increase global gains in rice productivity.
	Conduct interventions in irrigation infrastructure to facilitate the availability of credit. Relieve liquidity constraints, and enable the adoption of complementary factors of production (e.g., improved seeds and planting material).
	Not available	Agricultural practices without flooding	The soil is first soaked to make it suitable for cultivation and then dredged. The intervals of five to seven days between ploughing and the first and second dredging must be respected, to allow the weeds and rice remains to integrate and decompose in the soil [28].
Iran [29,30]	Rice farmers must observe the harvest calendar and adjust planting dates in a coordinated manner.	Drip irrigation system	Irrigation spacing by drip tape, with lateral spacing of 40 cm, 60 cm, and 80 cm, compared to the control treatment of intermittent irrigation with a fixed irrigation interval of five days.
	Use new irrigation facilities to manage water resources, change the method of transferring and distributing water, convert traditional agriculture into modern, and block unauthorised circulation.
	Reduce the use of chemical fertilisers (including nitrogen and phosphate) and pesticides (p4) to get closer to the standard consumption of these factors of production and, consequently, meet the standard of organic cultivation to provide healthy food and protect the environment.	Application of inorganic fertilisers	At a dose of 46 kg ha−1 of N (46% urea), 36 kg ha−1 of P2O5 (45% triple superphosphate), and 40 kg ha−1 of K2O (50% potassium sulphate).
South Africa [18]	Provide near real-time information on agrometeorological conditions, including precipitation, drought, vegetation, and fires, to the agricultural sector and the country in general.	Bucket, flood, and sprinkler irrigation systems	Water reservoirs for agriculture are filled with water taken from wells, using buckets tied with ropes. Once filled, the plots are irrigated using water distribution pipes with movable sides where sprinklers are placed (sprinkler irrigation) or by a water distribution system through small ditches that cross the crops (flood irrigation) [31].
	Promoting efficiency in the development of agricultural production to meet the 2030 vision [32].
France [33]	Simplifying the agroecological transition through adaptive or modifying actions designed to increase food self-sufficiency.	Not available	Not available
	Increase the number of areas with agricultural potential for legume cultivation and avoid crop disease pests.
China [34,35]	Improving the development and evolution of the ravine on a macro-regional scale.	Not available	Not available
	Relate the territorial system of human–environment interaction and the geographical environment (geographical engineering of the science of the human–land system of ravines) and analyse the political implications of more sustainable regional development.
	Modernising traditional agriculture for modern agriculture requires the rational and efficient use of agricultural land.

Table 2

DSs and GAPs in developing countries.

Country	Development Strategies	Good Agricultural Practices	Description
Gambia and Senegal [36]	Train farmers in organic addition techniques and pre-planting of NPK, using sowings pulled by horses or donkeys.	Application of seeds suitable for the climate	The seeds are peanut-55—437, cowpea—Yacine, millet—Souna3, maize—Early Thai, sorghum—Faourou (621B), and rice—Nerica 4.
	Application of currently certified seeds in agricultural production.	Application of organic fertiliser and soil improver	First, cultivate (farmers’ standard recommended), then add inorganic fertiliser (0, 50, and 150 kg/ha of 15% N–15% P2O5–15% K2O), with equivalent urea for cereals, and finally add organic fertiliser (none, millet husks at 3000 kg/ha, and manure at 3000 kg/ha).
Ghana [37,38]	Crop diversification (increases the availability of food for families, and leguminous crops improve soil fertility).	Backyard garden	Growing crops in private and physically enclosed domestic spaces, known as “backyards”, mainly for domestic consumption. Growing crops on buildings.
	Growing vegetable crops and subsidising fertilisers for farmers [39].	Agroforestry practices	Planting trees on land where agricultural practices are carried out, i.e., trees can be mixed with corn, beans, vegetables, and potatoes [40].
	Promote delayed agriculture to increase the availability of water for crops and avoid periods of drought for plants.	Agricultural models integrated into buildings	Not available
	Innovation in planting with improved crop varieties and early maturity, to promote better yields and increase the value of farmers’ agricultural income.	Farming on marginal land	Cultivation on lands such as wetlands, areas subject to flooding, the banks of surface water bodies, roadsides, abandoned rubbish dumps, and hills—considered unsuitable for growing conventional crops.
	Fertiliser application (increase crop yield and income) [41].	Temporary use of idle urban land and land inventory	Farming on temporarily unused land, including vacant land, abandoned properties, land under electricity transmission lines, land proposed for development, and land between structures.
	Implementation of fast-maturing crops, to promote the availability of food at a time when crops are expected to mature later.	Emerging models of soilless agriculture	The use of technologies that do not require soil for crops.
	Increasing supplementary irrigation to guarantee minimum incomes (and livelihoods) in the event of climate shocks [42].	Checking dams	Stone walls were built against a ravine to remove it over time, gradually sifting dirt and manure into the ravine. Dimensions: 50 to 150 cm high and 150 cm wide, and variable length depending on the site/context, but generally between 2 and 12 m long.
	Not available	Agricultural crops on woody plants.	This is a type of annual crop in which the plants are planted alongside fruit or indigenous trees which are then used as organic fertiliser [43].
	Not available	Assisted regeneration	Nutrients are recovered from agricultural fields through rotation, fallow, and minimum cultivation [44].
	Rural transformation (mechanisation and concentration of land, development of land and labour markets, and growth of the non-agricultural rural economy).	Physical infrastructure	Practices related to the installation and maintenance of various earth structures for capturing and regulating water, including check dams, stone dykes, marking ridges, and irrigation systems [45].
	Not available	Woody plant agricultural practice of cutting and mulching	Cultivation is often done in agroforestry fields (trees serve as fertiliser), i.e., a tree (fruit trees and indigenous tree species) is combined with an annual crop [43].
General	Mechanised and sustainable agriculture [45].	Agricultural practice of cover crops	They can be planted at the same time, for example, beans and lemons, with a spacing of 60 to 80 cm from the main crop, but the more vigorous and competing cover crops should be planted after the main crop has germinated and become well-established [46].
Ethiopia [47,48]	Agriculture based on early ripening crop varieties (teff and sergen) has been replaced by crops (kuncho teff) with faster ripening and high yields.	Physical actions for water and soil management	Traditional techniques of diverting and draining water through ditches for watershed irrigation (Uddo Wotate) are made during the growing season. The irrigation ditches are temporarily diagonal (made with maresha pulled with two oxen) in the crop fields [49].
	Short-term irrigation of gardens and fruit trees to respond to the impacts of regular climate change, especially during periods of drought and irregular rainfall.	Not available	Not available
	Promoting mixed farming through improved crop varieties, the development of early plants, and drought-tolerant late crops [50,51].	Soil and water conservation	Soil and water conservation: embankments built with fractions of large- and medium-sized stones, construction of soil dykes and terraces to minimise climate impacts, soil erosion phenomena and loss of moisture in the soil, and control of water runoff on the soil surface.
	Not available	Promoting agroforestry practices, agricultural soil fertility management, and water-saving irrigation systems [52]	Not available
General	Working with FAO [53].	Mowing and mulching	Maize, beans, and sorghum (mulch) are considered secondary crops, and trees and shrubs are considered main crops [53].
	Increasing support for research for agricultural development [53].	Agricultural water management practice	Water for irrigating rice fields is used in very short periods to allow the growing soil to aerate, by alternately wetting and drying it [54].
Tanzania [55]	Training farmers based on their GAP experiences could be one of the main agricultural strategies to develop rice production on large-scale farms in Tanzania.	Crops based on inorganic fertilisers for soil and climate conditions	Each hectare is given 200 kg of nitrogen, 20 kg of phosphorus, and 200 kg of potassium, with N:P2O5 at 80:40 kg ha −1. All the phosphate fertiliser was applied as basal, while the N was divided into three different applications, i.e., 16 kg N ha−1 as basal, 32 kg N ha−1 at 20 days after transplanting (for irrigated rice) or days after sowing (for rainfed rice), and 32 kg N ha−1 at 40 days.
	Improved water management to increase rice production; complete clearing of vegetation in cultivated fields with a rudimentary tool (machete); animal or motorised traction, or a hoe with a wooden handle during cultivation	Weed management practices	This practice involves manual weeding twice during the growing season and the application of pre-emergent oxidising herbicides is done with the help of mechanical weeders to eliminate the weeds from the nest.
Bangladesh, and Nepal [56]	Development of temperate horticulture, at research stations and private nurseries that have been certified by the government of Nepal [57].	Irrigation system	Whether drip irrigation should be applied to the plant is of great importance, as the low amount of water can meet all the plant’s needs, but in Nepal, the ring method and pipe irrigation are commonly used [57].
	The government aims to promote the development of commercialised agriculture to increase agricultural productivity and incomes [58].	Traditional agronomic practices in the Eastern Gangetic Plain	Two crops are grown each year. For example, rainfed rice is grown in the rainy season (monsoon), followed by another rainfed crop, usually wheat, legumes, or oilseeds.
	Not available	Agricultural conservation practices	The crop is cultivated in the dry season, and the water for irrigation depends on the financial resources of the farmer’s family; this practice requires a lot of labour and in the manual transplanting of rice, the soil is mechanically cultivated up to five or six times before the establishment of each crop and the irrigation water is applied to the fields employing inefficient pumps powered by diesel or electricity [59].
General	Seed production and varieties [60].	Not available	Not available
Kenya [61]	Promoting ecosystem-friendly agriculture, supporting the sustainable management of land, water, and natural resources, and increasing agricultural production for the population’s food security	Human excreta derived fertiliser (HEDF)	Production of compost, highly mechanised and modern mechanically remixed, mechanised irrigation turning, and using a bucket loader and manure spreader in the cultivation of French beans allowed a yield of 30%.
	The construction of a large horticultural industry has promoted the development of the agricultural sector in Kenya.	Irrigation system	Sprinkling water, pumping water using electric pumps (which run on solar energy sources, fuel, and electricity grids), and installing water storage systems, especially tanks and dams for collecting and storing surface water [62].
	Not available	Agricultural composting practice	Crop residues, crushed or cut pruning branches, leaves from trees and bushes, and animal manure [63]. Crop residues, shredded or cut pruning branches, leaves from trees and shrubs, and animal manure. Fruit peelings, damaged or rotten potatoes, and plant remains (apply between 4–5 kg/m2) [64].
Togo and Benin [65]	To implement programs focused on genetic improvement and the development of cereal seed varieties (rice) that are tolerant to night temperatures and daytime heat.	Smart vouchers	The land is first levelled, then dykes and water wells are built for good water management and storage. Runoff in the fields is made by installing water containment and drainage systems.
	Improving agricultural land management and increasing local rice production in the context of climate change and the introduction of new technology (smart valley approach).	Not available	Not available
	Construction of water barriers, water wells, and installation of drainage systems to store water for the fields.
General	Strategy on climate change [66].	Agricultural practices resilient to climate change	Programmed irrigation, reuse of wastewater, desalination of water, programming of crop calendars and a variety of crops with very short cycles, and putting on windbreakers (planting trees) [67].

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su16229878/s1.

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