Strategies to Extend the Shelf Life of Fresh and Minimally Processed Fruit and Vegetables with Edible Coatings and Modified Atmosphere Packaging

Abstract

Edible coatings are an innovative solution for food producers and suppliers looking for healthy alternatives that would be appealing to consumers seeking for ready-made products in fresh form. Low-processed horticulture products are expected to appear in more and more convenient form, ready to eat and completely safe. The application of edible surface films contributes to the extension of shelf life while maintaining strict hygiene standards. Properly selected coating components are not only able to slow down the decomposition processes but also inhibit microbial growth, thus preventing quality losses and eliminating any potential threats to health. The additional use of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) can significantly increase the shelf life of fruit and vegetables both fresh and minimally processed. However, single treatments (edible coatings and MAP) are limited in maintaining the quality and shelf life of fresh and fresh-cut fruit and vegetables. Little is known about the synergistic effect of MAP and edible coatings, and more research is necessary. The synergic action means combined action—first applying the edible coating, then packing in MAP.

1. Introduction

There is increasing global attention on the quality and freshness of food products. The staple food group rich in essential nutrients are fresh and minimally processed fruit and vegetables, which contain an abundance of vitamins, minerals and biologically active substances preserved despite the exclusion of heat treatment [1,2,3]. The market for these goods is growing especially in rich countries. These consumers expect shortening of meal preparation time and the availability of semi-finished products or dishes for direct consumption based on vegetables and fruits (ready-to-eat). An innovative group of products created as a result of consumer expectations are ready-to-eat products subjected to minimal processing limited to cutting or pre-mixing (fresh-cut) [4,5,6,7].

According to the recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO), the consumption of vegetables and fruits for an adult is assumed to be at least 400 g/day. Some countries recommend even higher doses, for example, the German Nutrition Association recommends a daily consumption of 250 g of fruit and 400 g of vegetables, excluding potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava and other starchy roots. These products are a source of many antioxidants (vitamins C and E or β-carotene) necessary for maintaining health, proper growth and development, especially in children [8,9]. The consumption of low-processed fruit and vegetables in the USA covers about 48% of the market [10]. The content of minerals, vitamins and health-promoting substances such as antioxidants can contribute to the prevention of many civilisation diseases, such as cancer or heart disease [11,12]. Consumers are looking for healthy food but also food convenient to use. This results from a change in lifestyle dictated by a large amount of time spent at work and the increasing number of people living alone. In order to adapt to such a mode, the product must save time in meal preparation; be pre-processed (washed, cut or peeled) and be suitable for storage for a longer period of time. Depending on the product, this is most often 4–7 days, but there are products that can be stored for up to 21 days [13,14,15,16].

Low-processed food, despite its nutritional value, is highly exposed to microbiological contamination, as well as less resistant to cold storage than other processed food. It is therefore important to ensure the best possible quality of the initial product and appropriate storage conditions.

In order to retard vegetables’ and fruits’ adverse physiological changes, specially developed edible coatings are used together with additives such as herbs, essential oils or other active substances. It is also worth noting that about 30% of horticultural products such as fruit and vegetables are infected with pathogens, pests and other microorganisms not only during transport and storage but also during processing, as those commodities are especially prone to all kinds of microbial contamination. This may also be influenced by many pre-harvest factors that can impact or decrease susceptibility to spoilage [17,18,19,20].

2. Factors Influenced Quality in Low-Processed Fruit and Vegetables

Low-processed fruit and vegetables are usually first trimmed, peeled and cut into the shape desired for the finished product. However, before packaging and delivering a fresh, attractive product to the consumer, several steps focused on increasing safety have to be incorporated. Tissue damage caused during the entire process can not only be a source of reduced resistance to environmental conditions and infection with pathogens but also the reason for the oxidation of active ingredients contained in them, which leads to a decrease in the value of the final product [21,22,23].

2.1. Sorting

The full procedure of preparing low-processed foods also consists of several additional elements, each of which has a high impact on the final effect, and it is crucial to maintain hygiene in all of them. Special attention should be paid to sorting, as it is often underrated while being probably the most important element in the production of such sensitive food. Especially the role of maturity is often underestimated; however, it can impart not only taste and texture but also can decide about the effectiveness of preservation operations. Of course, the sorting process should eliminate produce showing signs of deterioration. In general, healthy, firm, raw materials with the desired colour, size and other specific characteristics required should be selected [11,14,24].

2.2. Washing

The washing of minimally processed horticultural products is a critical processing step, one that impacts immensely upon product quality, shelf life and safety of this product category [25]. As the most important factor in the washing and, at the same time, disinfection stage, using dedicated agents in the appropriate concentration is crucial for the effective elimination of potential microbiological threats. Selecting the appropriate concentration is a matter of further storage, because too low may not disinfect the raw material well, while too high may lead to organoleptic changes or a threat to the consumer [24]. There are several disinfectants and sanitisers used for washing produce in the fresh-cut industry. Among others, chlorine (and its derivatives—sodium and calcium hypochlorite), chlorine dioxide (ClO₂), organic acids, ozone, hydrogen peroxide, electrolysed water and trisodium phosphate (TSP) are well recognised [26,27,28,29]. Meireles et al. [28] pointed out some alternative (biological, chemical and physical) methods to chlorine. In general, the ideal sanitising agent should have a sufficient level of antimicrobial activity and not affect the sensory quality. During the washing of fresh-cut products, the cross-contamination problem may arise [26,27,28,29]. There are specific regulations, for example, in the European Union and the United States, regarding the list of substances and their applications also in minimally processed fruit and vegetables (including fresh-cut) [28,29].

2.3. Drying

The next step aimed at preserving the product is drying, understood as superficial water removal. It has to be done using individually chosen draining devices like centrifugal spin dryers, vibrating racks, rotating conveyors, hydro sieves or drying tunnels with forced air, depending on the raw material shape and mechanical properties [30]. Failure to do this could expose the product to the development of pathogenic microflora by maintaining high humidity. Minimally processed vegetables and fruit are particularly susceptible to the development of filamentous fungi and bacteria Listeria monocytogenes. They can develop in a wide range of temperatures (also in cold storage) [11].

2.4. Peeling and Cutting

Peeling, removing low-quality parts or grinding is mainly aimed at the convenience of the consumer, but it is burdened with the risk of infection by increasing the surface of the tissue exposed to external factors, which is associated with the risk of infection with pathogens from the environment [11]. It has been observed that the use of very sharp industrial blades compared to kitchen equipment (knife) promotes the preservation of phenolic acids because of the cutting surface, which reduces the activity of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) [14]. Numerous chemical and physical preservation strategies can be used to prevent enzymatic browning, including reducing and chelating agents and inorganic salts. The following substances are mentioned in the literature to limit enzymatic browning: ascorbic acid, citric acid, chlorine dioxide, cysteine, 4-hexylresorcinol and sodium chlorite with added salicylic acid or cinnamic acid [31].

2.5. Mixing, Packaging and Storing

Mixing is also an element that makes it easier for buyers to work with the final product by preparing a semi-finished or fully ready-to-eat products, such as a lettuce mixes or a fruit and/or vegetable salad. The most important role is played by packaging and storage in order to maintain the longest possible freshness and the cold chain. The most common temperature is 0–7 °C [11,23,32].

3. Edible Coatings and Their Suitability for Fruit and Vegetables

Although edible coatings, as well as edible films used to cover food, are considered as a modern method of extending their shelf life, the history of food coating for preservation dates back to the 12th century. In China, waxing of fruit and vegetables and coating of meat with cellulose were used to slow down the rotting processes and preserve freshness. This method was rediscovered and used for the first time commercially in 1922 in the USA, where the waxing of fruit and vegetables began on a large scale [11,20].

The coating process is defined as applying to the surface or immersing plant tissues in prepared solutions with specific properties and composition selected to protect the cutting sites, along with slowing down the physiological processes of fragments or whole fruit and vegetables [22]. The coating is a barrier that makes it difficult for food to breathe, transpire and exchange fluids with the environment, resulting in better and longer storage of fresh products while maintaining microbiological cleanliness. Important for the process, as well as for the consumer, is the lack of change in the taste of the product by the applied film and its ease of removal, e.g., by washing [33,34].

The most sensitive to proper storage conditions are climacteric fruits, which, immediately after harvesting, if proper storage conditions are not ensured, begin an intensive process of respiration and ripening, producing ethylene. As a result of respiration, they lose the water they contain, and starch, sugars and organic acids break down into simpler molecules. This leads to the loss of many valuable ingredients, enzymes and reduced attractiveness of products [23,24]. The International Fresh-Cut Produce Association (IFPA) defines fresh-cut products as fruit or vegetables that have been trimmed, peeled and/or shredded, fully usable and pre- or post-packaged, providing the consumer with high nutritional value, convenience of use and high taste value while maintaining freshness [1]. Edible coatings, thanks to their ability to selectively diffuse, by slowing down the physiological processes occurring in low-processed plant products, limit the unfavourable changes in their appearance and taste [11,21,32].

3.1. Composition of Edible Coatings

Many fruits and vegetables are naturally covered with a waxy protective layer, i.e., cuticle, which is responsible for limiting water evaporation and gas exchange. Various substances of natural origin can be used to prepare a suitable protective film using their chemical and physical properties. The main requirement is the plasticity of the coating and the ease of changing the recipe to improve its properties. In Table 1, the main types of coatings used on fruit and vegetables and their components are listed.

Currently, the leading ingredients on the market are glycerol, sorbitol, polyethylene glycol and sugars. Also, hydrocolloids have the useful property of forming continuous and cohesive matrices due to their polymer chains. Polysaccharides, proteins and fats alone or in combination are also used for this purpose, but their properties are not as good, which results in less stable films [16,20,40,41].

Today’s edible coatings and edible films are among the innovative and increasingly popular methods of food preservation. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in interest in these solutions among researchers and industry. Both terms are used interchangeably, but their meanings should be distinguished, especially in English language reports. Edible coating is defined as a thin layer of edible material (usually an emulsion or suspension) applied to the surface of a product as an addition to or as a replacement for the natural edible coating (e.g., natural wax), creating a barrier against moisture, oxygen and substances soluble in the product.

The edible film is distinguished from edible coating by the method of production or treated as a consequence of its application. Edible film is a thin layer of edible material applied to the product, previously produced by the method of pouring biopolymers and transferred to the product or stabilised on the object coating, creating a thin film. Unfortunately, at present, edible coatings or biofilms are not able to replace traditional plastic packaging but can be an excellent complement to them and improve the quality of products and extend the storage time while maintaining its freshness and microbiological safety [24,33,38,42].

3.2. Edible Coating Enrichers

An important aspect of edible coatings is the possibility of modifying their composition. In many cases, they are multi-component mixtures of chemical compounds of natural, synthetic origin or, on the contrary, simple solutions focusing on the physical properties of a given substance. Undoubtedly, one of the interesting modifiers influencing the microbiology of the product but, unfortunately, also the taste are the addition of herbs, extracts and oils. Many herbal plants have a strong bactericidal, fungicidal effect or limit the growth of moulds and other microorganisms [10,43,44,45].

According to Nieto [46] and Ayala-Zavala et al. [47], essential oils have accompanied food preservation for thousands of years. They have also been used as medicines due to their antibacterial properties. Of the more than 3000 known essential oils, more than 300 are used in pharmacy and medicine, industry and agriculture. Serag et al. [45] stated that essential oils are mixtures of chemical components with a strong odour found in medicinal plants. They can be extracted from the bark, fruit, flowers, leaves, roots and whole herbs. They are rich in phenols and terpenes that counteract microorganisms. Most oils are colourless and have a fat-like form, but organic solvents such as water are used for extraction, depending on the desired fractions.

3.3. The Rationale Behind Using Coatings

Processing of horticultural products affects their physiological state, so actions should be taken to reduce the loss of food ingredients and also when the low-processed product is taken into consideration. A summary of the main benefits that can be obtained by using edible coatings on the surfaces of fruit and vegetables is presented in Figure 1. Cutting and grinding damage plant tissues, which results in the loss of juice, oxidation of ingredients, enzyme decomposition and, as a result, sensory changes such as darkening or change of taste. Proper storage, including control of temperature, humidity, light and additional treatments, e.g., application of edible coatings, are essential to preserve product quality [33,41,42,48]. The edible coating should create a selectively permeable barrier on the surfaces of fruit and vegetables, slowing down the respiration of the product and water loss through evaporation. Coatings should ideally reduce oxidation, minimising browning and preserving texture and the occurrence of microbiological contamination [3,6,49]. As reported by Xin et al. [6], the use of cereal proteins significantly contributed to the reduction of storage respiration and oxidative browning of apples, strawberries and potatoes. These proteins are used industrially for coating dried peanuts, meats and Atlantic salmon.

Jancikova et al. [51] in their research showed that the addition of plant extracts from red cabbage (Brasica oleacera), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas) and clitoria (Clitoria ternatea) used in the chitosan coating can contribute not only to the improvement of product storage but also to enrichment, e.g., in polyphenolic compounds from coatings.

The most popular fruits consumed by consumers include apples. In order to improve the properties of the coatings and extend storage while maintaining the appropriate sensory properties, they can be enriched with essential oils. Cofelice et al. [52], in their study, noted that the addition of lemongrass essential oil will significantly have a positive effect on the storage time and maintenance of the physical properties of cut apples. It is worth noting that the alginate coating has been differentiated into a higher and lower content of essential oil (1% v/v and 0.1% v/v), which has shown that a film with a lower content of the active substance has better properties. Nieto [46] pointed to the growing importance of essential oils not only as preservatives and flavour-enhancing additives but also as antioxidants. These substances can be used in many branches of the food industry on products such as meat, dairy products or vegetables. The author points out three oils that are a promising food additive: rosemary, oregano and thyme oils. Studies have confirmed the antibacterial properties of these substances—in particular, rosemary oil—in the control of strains such as Salmonellla choleraesuis, Shigella sonnei, Yersinia enterocolitica and Clostridium perfringens. Ayala-Zavala et al. [47] pointed to using garlic, thyme, clove, basil and rosemary essential oils against E. coli bacteria and others such as Shigella sp. and Yersinia sp. Liu et al. [17], in their research on the edible coating of chitosan, point to good film-forming properties and the combination of an edible film with the addition of peppermint and fennel essential oil. The perspective of using essential oil and/or active vapour substances from plant extracts needs further research. The coating is a promising complement or complete replacement for synthetic plastics, provides good storage conditions and its rheological properties indicate the legitimacy of use during storage of fresh-cut products. Table 2 provides examples of coatings used for the storage of fruit and vegetables.

Apart from the undoubted advantages of edible coatings, their use may also cause certain risks, including off-flavour (limited oxygen exchange), increased disorders associated with high CO₂ or low O₂ concentration (modification of internal atmospheres) aerobic respiration and disturbed proper ripening process (edible coatings have good gas barrier properties) and increased microbial growth (some edible coatings are hygroscopic) [20,35,79].

The application of edible coatings/films has a similar effect on storage under a modified atmosphere (MA). However, in many cases, the applied coating is not able to modify the internal atmosphere sufficiently to produce the desired preserving effect. Therefore, in such cases, it is recommended to also use appropriate packaging [50].

4. Use of Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)

The process that ends production and precedes shipment is the packaging of minimally processed fruit and vegetables. It has several key functions, and currently, without, it is impossible to allow goods to be properly marketed [1]. The first and most important purpose of packaging is to protect the product, especially against physical damage, dirt or microbiological infection, but also to protect it from spoilage during transport [60]. It is also a tool of communication between the manufacturer and the consumer, where the second can find detailed information on product and producers and, in cases when the packaging is also transparent, the good’s freshness and attractiveness. Packaging can also fulfil an aesthetic role, attracting the eye and allowing for better display of the product, as well as being a convenient solution allowing for free transport of goods and storage. During the entire transport and storage process, the most important thing is to ensure appropriate conditions to extend the shelf life of particularly sensitive, minimally processed products. Fruit and vegetables continue to breathe, changing the ratio of oxygen to carbon dioxide in the immediate environment (packaging), the phenomenon of respiration and increased humidity around the products occurs, which, together with improper temperature, can cause the development of harmful microorganisms. The use of edible coatings can help to slow down the changes, but it may not be sufficient. MAP is an effective complementary method that can further extend freshness and quality retention [50,80,81].

Extending shelf life is a demanding process, and MAP packaging is not always possible. An alternative to this method of storage is active packaging (AP), where additional technology is used to help maintain the physical, chemical and microbiological properties of the product and provide a full-value raw material. Table 3 collects the most commonly used gases in MAP technology and their properties. This is a diverse group of methods in which the following can be distinguished:

• oxygen absorbers, most often in the form of permeable or semi-permeable sachets containing iron, sulphur, boron, alcohols or fatty acids;

• humidity regulators consisting of silica gels, zeolite, cellulose fibres or sodium chloride;

• packaging that regulates gas permeability and changes its properties depending on the temperature;

• ethylene absorbers, slowing down the ripening of climacteric fruits;

• biocidal, containing sulphides, sulphites and alcohols or gases with bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity (sulphur, carbon or chlorine dioxides) [11,82].

From a storage point of view, it is very important to observe CO₂ and O₂ concentrations in order to better preserve the freshness of specific types of fruit and vegetables (Table 4).

The additional use of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) can significantly increase the shelf life of fruit and vegetables both fresh and minimally processed. In Table 5 the feasible beneficial effects of extra MAP application has been gathered. It is important to optimise the packaging material (permeability to CO₂, O₂, water vapour, ethylene, etc.) and/or use micro-perforation (very important size and shape of the holes, and their stability during storage) [35,83]. While some additional investment in processing machinery is necessary, failing to control the proper balance can have negative consequences (Table 5).

The temperature of storage, transport (shipment) and turnover of MAP-packed commodities is very important to maintain their quality. Gonzalez-Aguilar et al. [84] showed that the shelf life of fresh-cut green bell pepper MAP packed is limited to 14 and 21 days when stored at 10 °C and 5 °C, respectively. Beaudry et al. [85] pointed out that developing a functional and practical MAP system for any perishable commodity requires knowledge about the influence of the temperature on film permeability characteristics, the respiratory processes and the lower O₂ limit. Kargwal et al. [82] summarised the optimum temperature range for MAP for deciduous, subtropical and tropical tree fruit and vegetables. They pointed out that, depending on the species, the optimum range could be varied from 0 °C to even 25 °C.

5. Using Edible Coating Together with MAP

Single treatments (edible coatings and MAP) are limited in maintaining the quality and shelf life of fresh-cut produce [35,83]. Liao et al. [83] reported the positive synergistic effect of edible coatings and MAP on the quality of fresh-cut pineapple. A similar synergy effect was obtained by Ban et al. [86] using a combination of MAP and a chitosan coating to coat whole and sliced mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus). Combining these techniques showed better results, which resulted in longer storage of the cut mushrooms. This synergistic effect for other higher perishable products (fresh fish) was also described by Otero-Torez et al. [87]. The authors concluded that the combination of an edible fish gelatine coating with lauroyl arginate ethyl combined with MAP had a powerful synergistic effect on the growth of all the bacterial groups analysed in the experiment. The beneficial effect of using synergy controlled atmosphere with pretreatment involving anti-respiratory, anti-browning and antimicrobial agents in terms of a higher retention of phenolics and ascorbic acid precut jackfruit bulbs was also described by Saxena et al. [88]. In contrast, Tzoumaki et al. [89] pointed out that the combination of packaging and the edible coating did not offer any additional advantage on asparagus spears (in comparison to using alone) apart from the fact that the product had a brighter appearance at the middle part of the stem compared to the packaged spears alone.

6. Conclusions

Edible coatings are a modern method of extending the freshness of fruit and vegetables. They are a safe, simple method to slow metabolic processes and extend shelf life (postharvest physiology) that change the properties of horticultural products. Consumers are more likely to reach for low-processed products due to their ease of use, lack of time to prepare meals and high nutritional value and safety. The application of edible coatings on food has a chance to become an increasingly common practice, as it does not require complicated technology and significantly improves the comfort of using ready-made products by extending the shelf life of food (especially perishable fruit and vegetables) characterised by limited shelf life.

There is still very limited information in the literature on how to optimise the properties of MAP intended for storing fresh and minimally processed fruit and vegetables with edible coatings. Horticultural commodities after harvest still show high metabolic activity. Thus, it should be taken into consideration that the same product (for example, fresh-cut vegetables) with and without coating will behave differently. As it was mentioned in the text, edible coatings may reduce the respiration rate, so if the MAP was optimised for fruit or vegetables without coating, the same material for coated products may be inappropriate. Therefore, future research should also focus on the synergistic effect of MAP and edible coatings, with control of gas concentrations in the packaging.

Further investigation should be also focused on developing new edible coatings that allow to minimalise the use of plastic for the packaging of fresh and minimally processed fruit and vegetables. Another important issue seems to be the perspective of using essential oil and/or active vapour substances from plant extracts. So far, the commercial application of these substances (highly volatile) is not well developed. The crucial point is to develop packaging material and/or pads (which can be placed inside the MAP) that allow the slow (and controlled) release the active, volatile substances. There are numerous patents available, which may be useful for developing new systems for the controlled use of plant-based extract for edible coatings and MAP packaging [90].

Last, but not least, the important issue is the search for synergistic solutions (edible coating and MAP) that will allow for extending the durability of packaged products at higher than the currently recommended temperatures. This is particularly important from the point of view of the end user, who may have problems maintaining appropriate temperature conditions in home conditions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, J.A.Z.; resources, J.A.Z. and K.P.R.; writing—original draft preparation, J.A.Z.; writing—review and editing, K.P.R. and D.K.; visualisation, J.A.Z.; supervision, D.K.; project administration, K.P.R.; funding acquisition, D.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Footnotes

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Figure and Tables

Figure 1. Benefits of edible coatings. Sources: [1,3,11,16,20,35,36,50].

Table 1

Compounds used in creating edible coatings.

Component	Description
Polisaccharides	Starch containing amylose and amylopectin. It creates a strong, odourless barrier that does not show taste and colour and is easy to remove. Due to being a good oxygen barrier, it is used to coat fruit and vegetables with high breathability, slowing down gas exchange and delaying oxidation. Starch-based edible coatings create low water barrier capacity [1,35,36,37].
	Dextrins have smaller molecules than starch and the coatings made from dextrins are characterised by better water vapour resistance compared to coatings from starch [1,3].
	Cellulose is a component of resistant coatings, with high plasticity, resistant to oils and fats. Its use is expensive. Cellulose coatings also include the use of cellulose salts such as carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and methylcellulose (MC) obtained by attaching a hydroxyl residue to cellulose. CMC is used on apples, blueberries, lettuce and carrots to preserve the original crispiness, preserve the original taste of fruit and vegetables and slow down the respiration process of products [36,37].
	Pectins are polymers mainly composed of (1→4) α-D-galactopyranosyluronic acid units naturally esterified with methanol and they are rarely used in research [1].
	Chitosan derived from chitin is environmentally friendly, has a high value as a film due to its plasticity and physical properties. It is biodegradable, easily washable and has antibacterial and antifungal properties [7,35,38].
	Alginates extracted from seaweed have the ability to form aqueous colloids, coating food well and showing reduced weight loss through water evaporation and limiting the development of natural microflora on cut carrots [35].
	Carrageenan, also isolated from marine algae, consists mainly of water-soluble galactose polymers. It reduces moisture loss by creating a barrier on the surface, slows down oxidation and can reduce the amount of microflora on the surface of low-processed vegetables and fruits [36].
	Dextran is an exopolysaccharide and creates a coating that reduces water vapour permeability with good mechanical properties (tensile strength and elasticity) [36].
Proteins	Casein and whey protein are proteins from milk; when used in the form of an emulsion, it is much more stable than the pure ingredient [20].
	Cereal proteins have very good properties limiting gas exchange, on a par with synthetic coatings [37].
	Zein is the main protein in corn. It is characterised by low water vapour permeability as a coating and insolubility in water [37].
	Soy protein isolated from defatted soybean meal is highly permeable to vapor due to its hydrophilic nature and should be combined with a hydrophobic component. These coatings are promising in terms of creating a barrier to reduce gas exchange [37,38].
Lipids	Fatty acids have good physical properties, but they cause greasy surfaces, which can translate into consumer reluctance [39].
	Waxes (beeswax, paraffin and others) are widely used, one of the first coatings to extend the shelf life of horticultural products [3,16].
	Resins and oleoresins have good properties against water loss, but they can disturb gas exchange and contribute to the deterioration of the sensory properties of many fruits [3,16].

Table 2

Effect of selected coatings on the quality and shelf life of fruit and vegetables.

Coating Substance	Coating Excipient	Product	Effect	Reference
Sodium Alginate	Calcium lactate	Cantaloupe and Strawberries	Good water vapour barrier, reduce water loss in fresh-cantaloupe, but increase in strawberries.	[12]
Sodium alginateCocoa cream	Calcium ascorbate	Fresh-cut orange	Preserve the firmness, moisture content and product shelf life.	[53]
Sodium alginate	Calcium chloride	Strawberry	Reduced the transpiration and respiration rates. Reduction of mold growth and preserved the sensory properties of the cut strawberrie.	[54]
Alginate	Ascorbic acid	Pineapple	Preservation of the visual appearance of minimally processed pineapple. Coated samples showed better appearance during storage when compared to the uncoated ones.	[55]
Alginate	Glycerol(0–2%, w/v)	Cantaloupes (Cucumis melo L. reticulatus cv. Glamour)	1.86% alginate and 1.47% glycerol maintained quality in terms of fluid loss, firmness, headspace carbon dioxide and oxygen concentration.	[56]
CMC from pineapple crown	Glicerol 2% v/v	Banana	Delay fruit ripening reduces water loss by 25–26% to control.	[57]
Low-methoxyl pectin	Lemon byproducts extract (peels, pulp and seeds)	Carrot (fresh-cut)	Good preservation of physiological parameters and limited changes in colour (∆E < 3) and white-blush development.	[22]
Tannin extract(from Acacia mearnsii)		Crisp leaf lettuce (fresh-cut)	Tannin extracts might turn out to be alternatives to chlorine as sanitising media due to the mechanism that inhibits the multiplication of bacteria.	[58]
Chitosan	Zanthoxylum sp. extract	Apple Anna (cubed)	Shown differences in color, water loss and significant differences in bacterial growth inhibition.	[59]
Chitosan	Ginseng extract	Melon (fresh-cut)	Antioxidant effects of the edible coating, preservation of water loss and reduction of evaporation were observed.	[60]
Chitosan	Tea tree essential oilPeppermint essential oilAscorbic acid	Green beans	Maintaining chlorophyll content, reducing weight loss and firmness, preserving phenolic coumponds.	[61]
Chitosan		Papaya Maradol	color, firmness, enzymeactivity and microbial growth were positively affected by chitosancoatings.	[62]
Chitosancarrageenan	Red cabbage extract, Sweet potato extract, Clitoria extracts	Apple Golden Delicious	Variability in browning has been demonstrated after the application of different plant extracts. In most trials, better behavior-supporting properties of saving total polyphenol content in carrageenan-coated samples than chitosan were reported.	[51]
Chitosan	Clove essential oil	Lermon	Coatings containing clove oil in low temperature (0 °C) storage conditions maintaining the qualitative properties and inhibiting enzymatic browning of freshly cut lemons.	[63]
Chitosan	Gcucumberlacial aceticacid	Fresh-cut cucumber	The good properties of chitosan may be insufficient and additional packaging may better prolong the freshness of the cucumber.	[64]
Chitosan	Acetic acidClove oil	mango fruit (Mangifera indica)“Alphonso”	Coating rolongate the shelf life of fresh cut mangoes stored at 4 °C for 15 days, while uncoated samples starteddeteriorating after five days of storage.	[65]
Chitosan,Pullulan		Apples (Malus domestica cv. Fuji)	treatments effectively inhibited enzymatic browning, retarded tissue softening, inhibited microbial growth, decreased weight loss and respiration rate of the minimally processed apple slices during storage.	[66]
Ascorbic acid	Chitosan	Apples Granny Simth	Reducing browning, slowing down the multiplication of microorganisms, and reducing water loss.	[67]
Carrageenan solution	Calcium chloride,Ascorbic acid	Madeira bananas (cv. Cavendish)—sliced	A reduction in water loss was reported, but the best results were obtained when combined with the ascorbic acid and calcium chloride soaking technique.	[68]
Aloe vera gel	Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose,Lemon essential oil	“Hayward” kiwifruits	Treatments maintained the highest values in terms of firmness and lowervalues of weight loss and browning index.	[69]
Gum arabic powder		Ponkan orange	Reduce postharvest decay and maintain the nutritional quality and reduce oxidative damage.	[70]
Gum arabic(Acacia senegal)	Glycerol (1% v/v)	Strawberries	Retaining or delaying fruit quality parameters including fruit firmness, TSS, decay, TAC, TPC, color, pH, PPO activity, and antioxidant activity and weight loss.	[71]
Chickpea starchAloe vera gel		Green papaya “Sekaki”	Coating reduced weight loss, provide better firmness and extend the shelf life up to 12 days at refrigerated condition.	[72]
Xanthan gum	Citric acid	lotus root(N. nucifera)	Spray-coated fresh-cut lotus root samples had significant reduction in the total color changes as compared to non-coated samples. Decrease the enzymatic browning of fresh-cutlotus root during storage.	[73]
Persian gum,Gelatin, shellac		“Valencia” oranges (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck)	Coatings provided gloss after treatment but they were not stable and showed visible cracks during storage.	[74]
Honey		Persimmon	Delay of gelling, loss of aroma and firmness.	[75]
Whey Protein Isolate (WPI)	Transglutaminase (Tgase), sunflower oil	Apples Yantai Fuji	Reduction of browning by 46.39% compared to controls (Browning Index).	[6]
Whey protein isolate (WPI)	Lemon essential oilLemongrass essential oil	Pear Conference (fresh-cut)	Reduction of evaporation and permeation of oxygen and carbon dioxide, reduction of bronzing. Slight change in fruit flavor.	[41]
Pea protein	Sorbitol, candelia wax	Grape	Reduction of loss of weight, ascorbic acid and sugars during storage in relation to the control.	[76]
Gelatin	Aloe vera extractGreen teaBlack tea	Orange (fresh-cut)	The addition of extracts significantly contributed to color preservation, weight loss, and microbiological quality preservation.	[77]
Gelatin	Aloe vera extractGreen tea	Apple (sliced)	Extension of storage and preservation of organoleptic properties. Reduction of bacteria content compared to control.	[78]
Aqueous ethanol solution 4%	Cinnamon bark extract 2% (w/v)	Apples Idared (sliced)	Significant reduction in the growth of E. coli and L. innocua bacteria.	[44]
Curcumin solution (Photodynamic sterylisation technology)		Cantaloupe(Hami melon)	Curcumin effectively sterilise residual bacterial contamination and delay their growth.	[2]
Essential oils: Spanish origanum, Spanish majoram, coriander		Green leave mix (endive chickory, lettuce, red beets)	Higher concentrations of essential oils inhibit the multiplication of microorganisms, but give an undesirable smell depending on the composition of the oils.	[79]

Table 3

Effect of gases used in MAP technology on the shelf life of fresh products [1].

Medium	Function
Oxygen O2	Oxygen is low solubility in water odourless and colourless gas. It enhances oxidation and darkening process in foods (including fruit and vegetables). Because is required for the growth of many pathogenic strains of bacteria and fungi, therefore a reduction of its concentration in packages prolongs the shelf life of food.
Nitrogen N2	Nitrogen is non-reactive, non-flammable, inert, colourless, and odourless gas. Its density is lower than air and is characterised by low water solubility. It serves as a neutral filling for modified atmosphere packaging with a regulated oxygen-to-carbon dioxide ratio. May contribute to slowing oxidation and growth of aerobic bacteria without suspending the growth of anaerobic strains.
Carbon dioxide CO2	Carbon dioxide is colourless and odourless (in low concentration) gas. It is lipid soluble and dissolves readily in water giving carbonic acid, which causes the increase of acidity of the solution lowers the pH and has a positive effect on the microbiological stability of packed food. Carbon dioxide is characterised by bacteriostatic and fungistatic properties. It is generally effective in fresh fruit and vegetables where the normal spoilage organisms consist of aerobic, Gram-negative psychotropic bacteria. In the low storage temperature, a higher antimicrobial effect is observed. Using a high concentration of carbon dioxide in MAP, the susceptibility of fruit and vegetables to CO2 injuries should be taken into consideration.
Carbon monoxide CO	Carbon monoxide is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas with low water solubility, quite soluble in some organic solvents. It little slows down the growth of some microorganisms, but it is not widely used in the food industry due to its properties (highly reactive and very inflammable). Carbon monoxide can prevent browning processes for example for packed lettuce.
Noble gases	Helium (He), Argon (Ar), Xenon (Xe) and Neon (Ne) non-very reactive gases used to fill many packages of processed foods.

Table 4

CO₂ and O₂ concentration limits in controlled atmospheres and MAP technology [65,80].

O2 Concentration (%)	Commodities
<0.5	Chopped greenleaf *, redleaf *, romaine * and iceberg lettuce *, spinach, sliced pear; broccoli *; mushroom
1.0	Broccoli florets, chopped butterhead lettuce, sliced apple, brussels sprouts, cantaloupe, cucumber, crisphead lettuce, onion bulbs, apricot, avocado, banana *, cherimoya, atemoya, sweet cherry, cranberry, grape, kiwifruit *, litchi, nectarine, peach, plum, rambutan, sweetsop
1.5	Most apples *, most pears *
2.0	Shredded and cut carrots, artichoke, cabbage *, cauliflower, celery, bell and chilli peppers, sweet corn, tomato, blackberry, durian, fig, mango, olive, papaya, pineapple, pomegranate, raspberry, strawberry
2.5	Shredded cabbage, blueberry
3.0	Cubed or sliced cantaloup, low-permeability apples * and pears *, grapefruit, persimmon
4.0	Sliced mushrooms
5.0	Green snap beans, lemon, lime, orange
10.0	Asparagus
14.0	Orange section
CO2 Concentration (%)	Commodities
2	Lettuce (crisphead), pear
3	Artichoke, tomato
5	Apple (most cultivars), apricot, cauliflower, cucumber, grape, nashi, olive, orange, peach (clingstone), potato, pepper (bell)
7	Banana, bean (green snap), kiwifruit
8	Papaya
10	Asparagus, brussels sprouts, cabbage, celery, grapefruit, lemon, lime, mango, nectarine, peach (freestone), persimmon, pineapple, sweet corn
15	Avocado, broccoli, lychee, plum, pomegranate, sweetsop,
20	Cantaloupe (muskmelon), durian, mushroom, rambutan
25	Blackberry, blueberry, fig, raspberry, strawberry
30	Cherimoya

* Considered to have very good to excellent potential to respond to low O₂; Data source: Mir & Beaudry [80].

Table 5

Advantages and disadvantages of MAP packaging [82].

Advantages

Disadvantages

MAP enhances the shelf life of the commodity from many days to many weeks as compared to traditional storage systems. Delay of ripening. MAP reduces physiological injury, disorder, weight loss, fungal growth and pathological deterioration. Reduction of respiration rate, loss of moisture, production of metabolic heat, yellowing, browning decay and C2H4 sensitivity and production occurs. MAP maintains the quality in terms of colour, flavours, moisture and maturity retention. It delays softening and compositional changes. Deterrence of chilling injury is common. Decrease in production and storage cost due to better utilization of space, labour and equipment. Little or no need for chemical preservatives. Expanded distribution area and reduced transport costs due to less frequent deliveries are possible. It provides clear visibility of the commodity in the package.

Additional investment in terms of machinery and labour is required which adds to additional investment in the packaging system. Improper packaging or temperature can cause spoilage of produce. Plastic films used in MAP cause environmental degradation unless effective recycling is established. Capital cost of gas packaging machinery. Cost of gases and packaging materials.

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