1. Introduction
In recent years, sport has emerged as a proven necessity for an individual to maintain their life in a healthy, balanced, and quality manner. The modern urban individual of today turns to sports they can do without leaving the city, both to cope with the stress of work life and to maintain their health. Additionally, it is clear that sports performed in groups provide the opportunity for individuals to socialize. As a result of the rising living standards of people parallel to technological advancements, expectations from the clothes individuals use while participating in sports have also increased. Along with characteristics such as durability, aesthetics, design, and fashion compatibility of textile materials, their functional features have also become important. Therefore, this research was aimed at merging sportswear with cosmetics.
Particularly, cosmetic textiles, which merge two different sectors, namely cosmetics and textiles, have created new target groups and markets for the industry. It has become a rapidly growing segment of functional textiles used in health and hygiene sectors. The definition of cosmetic textiles by the European Cosmetic Directive is as follows: “any textile article containing a substance or preparation that is released over time on different superficial parts of the human body, notably on human skin, and containing special functionalities such as cleansing, perfuming, changing appearance, protection, keeping in good condition or the correction of body odors is called a cosmeto-textile” [1,2]. This new trend in cosmetic textiles has acknowledged the excellence of nanometer-sized materials, which have desirable qualities [3]. The extracts of natural products and chosen essential oils, which possess healing properties as well as the ability to maintain the freshness and vitality of the wearer, are incorporated into textiles [1]. The primary technology to produce these cosmetic textiles involves controlled-release encapsulation. Encapsulation provides methods like microencapsulation, molecular encapsulation, and liposomes, thereby enhancing the new functionalities of textiles [4]. The encapsulated essential oils have a variety of uses in textiles for antibacterial, cosmetic, medicinal, and mosquito-repelling products [5].
Cosmetic textiles are garments that must maintain direct contact with the human body in order to fulfill their function. The active ingredients contained in these garments are released as a result of various effects, transferring the active substances to the human skin [6] and interacting with the skin based on temperature or pH changes, perspiration, scratching, and rubbing [7]. The substances within the capsules are released due to friction or pressure caused by the body’s natural movements [1].
Cosmetic textiles have been researched by several authors. The studies in the literature are focused on slimming [6,8], moisturizing [2,9,10], perfuming [11], relaxing [2,12,13,14], vitalizing [12,15,16,17], UV protection [4,18,19], and improving skin elasticity [10,16,20,21,22].
In the study conducted by Mosca and Rona (2003), the effectiveness of products made from Texenergy fabric that claimed to be slimming, anti-cellulite, sweat-inducing, and hypoallergenic was investigated. The study was carried out with 21 volunteer women aged between 21 and 65 over a period of 8 weeks. Each volunteer was given three products and asked to wear these products for 8 h a day. Echography was used to measure the reduction in hypodermis thickness, laser Doppler flowmetry was used to measure microcirculation in the skin, and thermography was used to measure local skin temperature. At the end of the study, the volunteers stated that the products were effective in slimming and reducing cellulite [20]. Sole et al. (2019) carried out a study with an innovative approach to cosmeto-textile design by infusing textile fibers with dihydroxyacetone-loaded chitosan hydrogels cross-linked with genipin. The integration of these hydrogels into polyamide fabrics was achieved via a straightforward padding technique, with the resulting product’s effectiveness as a tanning agent confirmed through skin-colorimetry measurements on a 10-person evaluation panel. After a period of four days, the degree of tanning was observed on the skin that had contact with the cosmeto-textile product. Additionally, six of the panelists stated that a tanning effect was produced, and tanning was considered an aesthetic quality by four of them [10]. Yılmaz et al. (2023a) conducted research on investigating the slimming effect of seamless sports bras which had cosmetic microcapsules applied to them. Wear trials were carried out with 50 female volunteers for a 28-day period. According to findings, the product contributed to a reduction in breast size and enhanced skin hydration and nipple elevation, attributable to the release of cosmetic substances from microcapsules. Most participants acknowledged the sports bra’s effectiveness in providing breast lift and support and expressed satisfaction with the improved shape of their breasts [6].
This research concentrated on examining the impact of top and bottom sportswear products developed as cosmetic textiles on moisturizing, perfuming, and anti-cellulite effects. The skin structure is complex, composed of several layers, from the outermost to the innermost, that differ greatly in their anatomy and functionality: the stratum corneum (SC), the epidermis, the dermis, and the hypodermis [23,24]. In older individuals, a relatively thick SC is formed on the skin’s surface; therefore, it is essential to take measures to improve or maintain skin barrier function. Therefore, moisturizing has a great impact on enhancing flexibility and elasticity [25]. Cellulite is also another skin condition mostly among women that represents the appearance of ‘orange peel’ skin in the affected areas [22]. It is defined as a skin relief alteration that causes skin to resemble an orange peel or the surface of a mattress. It is an aesthetic issue which significantly impacts the appearance of the skin, particularly noticeable as dimples on the hips, thighs, and buttocks [23,26,27]. From a clinical perspective, cellulite can be classified as follows “1–4”: 0 signifies no presence of cellulite; 1 indicates minor skin dimpling; 2 includes both dimpling and depressions in the skin; 3 involves dimpling along with depressed striation; while 4 signifies palpable lumps and depressed striations [22].
The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of leggings and long-sleeve shirts designed for salon sports use. These items were developed by applying natural extracts (oils) with varied properties, such as reducing the appearance of orange peel skin, emitting fragrance (perfume effect), and moisturizing, using a microencapsulation method. In this study, four different knitted fabric structures were identified and microcapsules, which reduce the orange peel appearance, moisturize, and remove odors, were applied. Leggings and long-sleeve shirts were then produced from these fabrics. For comparison, a control group was also created using the same items but made from fabric not treated with microcapsules. A total of 18 volunteers took part in wear trials, during which changes in the degree of orange peel appearance and skin moisture levels were noted.
2. Methodology
The methodology of the research was structured as presented in Figure 1 to ensure the comprehensive assessment and analysis of the impact of microencapsulated sportswear on skin health and orange peel appearance.
2.1. Fabric Constructions
The selection of fabric constructions for the purpose of this study was influenced by the need to create a textile product that would serve the multifunctional requirements of modern sportswear. These requirements included the ability to reduce the appearance of the “orange peel” skin characteristic of cellulite and provide moisture to the skin during physical activities. Apart from these cosmetic functions, the fabrics were determined to be able to maintain the primary characteristics expected of sportswear, such as durability and comfort. Thus, three commonly used fabric constructions in sportswear were procured (Table 1).
During active sports, the body generates significant amounts of heat due to intense physical activity. In response, the body switches from evaporating water vapor to liquid sweat to maintain a stable core temperature. Consequently, the moisture transmission properties of sportswear, particularly liquid moisture management, become more critical than water vapor permeability. The Overall Moisture Management Capacity (OMMC) is a critical value that indicates a fabric’s ability to manage moisture in all directions. OMMC is graded on a scale where 0–0.2 indicates very low moisture management capacity, 0.2–0.4 is low, 0.4–0.6 is good, 0.6–0.8 is very good, and values over 0.8 are considered excellent [34].
The thermal resistance of a textile material is defined as the ratio of the temperature difference across the material to the heat flow per unit area. The magnitude of heat flow at any point within the material is inversely proportional to thermal resistance; the higher thermal resistance the lesser heat transfer [35]. Considering Table 1, Fabric 1 stood out with the highest values of bursting strength and air permeability. Upon evaluating the thermal resistance properties of the fabrics, it was found that Fabric 1 had the lowest thermal resistance, hence the highest heat transfer capabilities, making it the most suitable for thermal regulation during physical activity. The fabric constructions were found to have a low level of moisture management performance, with only Fabric 1 reaching a ‘good’ level.
2.2. Microencapsulation and Evaluation of Durability to Domestic Laundering
The fabric samples were treated with three distinct types of microcapsules using the impregnation method. This technique facilitated the embedding of active agents directly into the textile, enabling the controlled release of substances over time. The agents chosen were specifically aimed at (1) Diminishing the orange peel appearance associated with cellulite and (2) Providing sustained moisture to the skin. One of the microcapsules used in this study, Captex 20264 (Huile Amincissante) (Société Robert Blondel Cosmétiques, Malaunay, France), has a pH range of 7.5–9 and is dispersible in water at any concentration. This microcapsule is specifically designed to reduce the appearance of orange peel skin through its targeted cosmetic properties. The other microcapsule, Captex 20401 (Huile Hydra Marine) (Société Robert Blondel Cosmétiques, France), is a microencapsulated suspension with particle sizes of approximately 5 µm. Its composition includes helianthus annuus seed oil, perfume, caprylic/capric triglyceride, benzyl salicylate, crambe maritima extract, crithmum maritimum extract, alaria esculenta extract, laminaria digitata extract, tocopherol, and tocopheryl acetate. This microcapsule is formulated to provide hydration and antioxidant benefits to the skin. The types and quantities of microcapsulation as well as the additional materials that were applied to the fabric samples are shown in Table 2.
Following the microencapsulation processes, fabric samples were subjected to repetitive washing using a household washing machine at 40 °C and 800 RPM. The aim was to quantify the microcapsule retention rate after domestic washing cycles. The microencapsulated fabrics were evaluated under an Olympus CX21LED model optical microscope at 400× magnification after the 5th, 20th, and 30th washing cycles.
2.3. Wear Trials
In the research, first long sleeve shirts and leggings were produced in three standard body sizes: Small (S), Medium (M), and Large (L). The garments were then tested through a series of wear trials, conducted under controlled conditions that simulated sports sessions. A developed training procedure was applied to standardize the physical activities of the participants, thereby ensuring consistency in the conditions under which the garments were evaluated in line with ethical research practices; the study was carefully designed to adhere to the principles outlined in the Helsinki Declaration. The university’s ethics committee granted approval for the research methodology (reference: EGE.ETK.2015.15-6/7), thus ensuring the integrity of the study and the welfare of all participants. Prior to the initiation of the wear trials, a comprehensive health questionnaire was administered to the subjects to assess their suitability for the study and to gather baseline health data. Upon clearing the health criteria, subjects were required to sign a written informed consent form, confirming their voluntary participation and understanding of the study’s nature and objectives.
2.3.1. Participants
The study recruited healthy female volunteers aged between 18 and 40 years who regularly engaged in gym sports at a beginner level. Regarding the inclusion criteria, participants could not have any health problems, smoking or alcohol consumption habits, be pregnant or breastfeeding, or use any legal or illegal ergogenic food additives that could potentially affect physical performance or energy metabolism.
The experiment was conducted as a double-blind study where neither the researchers nor the participants were aware of which individuals received the microencapsulated products versus the control garments. Initially, the study aimed to complete the trials with 48 volunteers evenly split into two groups: a control group and a microencapsulated group, each including 24 participants. However, during the 7-week study, some participants were excluded due to factors such as changes in diet or failure to attend sport sessions, etc. These exclusions were made to ensure that the data collected was reliable and unaffected by external variables. While the final sample size was smaller, it met the statistical requirements for obtaining significant conclusions. Therefore, the research was finally completed with 18 participants who met all the conditions, evenly divided with 9 in the control group and 9 in the group wearing the microencapsulated products. Ultimately, the volunteers were 26.2 ± 7.41 years in age, 163.1 ± 0.06 cm in height, 65.67 ± 14.65 kg in weight, and 24.59 ± 4.68 in body mass index (BMI).
2.3.2. Training Procedure
The 1 MET (Metabolic Equivalent) value is a unit used to estimate the amount of oxygen consumed by the body at rest and is equivalent to the energy cost of sitting quietly. The research was initiated by establishing a baseline for each volunteer’s metabolic rate utilizing a laboratory-grade gas analyzer, and the 1 MET value was determined for each participant under rest conditions. Following this, further tests were conducted to record the oxygen consumption level and heart rate responses at an 8 MET workload during treadmill exercises. The speed at which this level of effort was achieved was noted for each volunteer and determined as their training level for the duration of the study.
To ensure participants were familiarized with the experimental setup, a 30-min adaptation session was conducted using fitness-style treadmill equipment. Subsequently, the wear trials were performed along with the training procedure are presented in Table 3. All training sessions were carried out in the controlled environment of the university’s gym. The conditions were strictly regulated, with temperatures maintained between 22 and 25 °C and relative humidity levels held at 50–70%. These conditions were selected to simulate a typical indoor sports environment and ensure the comfort and safety of all participants.
2.3.3. Evaluation
The study revealed a combination of thermal imaging, skin moisture analysis, and dermatological clinical evaluation to assess the impact of the cosmetic textiles on cellulite appearance and skin hydration.
Cellulite Tissue Measurement
A thermal camera (FLIR E60, Teledyne FLIR, Arlington, VA, USA) was used to visualize the skin’s topography and determine the condition of cellulite-affected tissue. Previous studies by Nkengne et al. (2013) established thermal imaging as a repeatable and reproducible method for assessing cellulite [36]. The primary purpose of using the thermal camera in this study was to detect changes in cellulite tissue in targeted regions such as the hips, upper legs, and calves just before adaptation workout and right after the end of 6-week training period. Thermal images were evaluated using FLIR Thermal Studio Pro–1 software.
Skin Moisture Analysis
To evaluate the moisturizing effect of the tested product on the skin, the Transepidermal Water Loss (TEWL) was measured using an MPA 6 Tewameter (Courage + Khazaka electronic, Köln, Germany) device. TEWL measurements are indicative of the skin’s barrier function and its ability to retain moisture. The precise measurement locations and points for the analysis were detailed in Table 4. The participants’ skin moisture analyses were conducted just before the adaptation workout and directly after completing the 6-week workout.
Dermatological Clinical Evaluation
A dermatological clinical assessment was performed by a specialist dermatologist to evaluate the participants’ cellulite before the adaptation workout and at the end of 6-week training period. The grading was performed on a scale of 1 to 4, where 1 represents the lowest level of cellulite, and 4 indicates the most severe cellulite presence.
Statistical Analysis
All statistical analyses were conducted using the PASW 18 statistical analysis package. The p-values obtained were evaluated based on a significance level of p = 0.05. Repeated Measures ANOVA tests were performed to assess the correlation within and between the evaluated factors. Since the data collected within the scope of the study were nonparametric, the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was utilized in the statistical analyses. This test was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between the means of two measurements taken from a single group over a specific time interval.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Domestic Laundering Results
The rate at which the microcapsules remained within the fabrics was measured using microscopic examination both before and following 5, 20, and 30 washing cycles. In Figure 2, the microscopic images obtained as well as the average microcapsule rates for each determined washing cycle are given. Upon evaluating the average data obtained, it was observed that the microcapsules met the expected standard ratios specified in the product’s data sheet even after repeated washing cycles. Remarkably, despite the potential for degradation through repeated laundering processes, the microcapsules demonstrated a substantial capacity to withstand the mechanical and chemical stresses of washing.
3.2. Cellulite Tissue and Skin Moisture Evaluation
The BMI values of the 18 volunteers participating in the study, along with group and fabric information related to the wear trial, as well as the results of the dermatological evaluation, skin moisture Tewameter, and thermal camera measurements, are provided in Table 5. The pre- and post-trial data presented in Table 5 demonstrate significant improvements in skin conditions among participants wearing microencapsulated garments. These findings underline the importance of including baseline measurements to accurately assess the efficacy of cosmetic textiles.
3.2.1. Cellulite Tissue Evaluation
Thermal Camera Results
A thermal camera was employed to visualize the skin’s topography for determining the condition of cellulite-affected tissue. The inhibition of skin surface blood circulation due to cellulite tissue can be clearly observed in the thermal maps generated from the thermal images (Figure 3). To ensure the uniformity of these thermal maps, evaluations across all participants were performed. Rather than analyzing the temperature at a single point, the averages of the temperatures within several pre-determined rectangular or polygonal areas were numerically documented based on the thermal images.
Upon analyzing the temperature values obtained with the thermal camera, an increase was observed in participants using the microencapsulated garments: 1.4 °C ± 1.32 in the upper leg region, 1.1 °C ± 1.34 in the hip region, and 0.9 °C ± 1.16 in the calf region. In contrast, participants in the control group exhibited decreases in these regions: 0.4 °C ± 0.67 in the upper thigh region, 0.1 °C ± 0.59 in the hip region, and 0.3 °C ± 0.62 in the calf region.
A decrease in the density of the subcutaneous tissue within the targeted areas was observed when comparing the thermal maps obtained from the pre-tests and post-tests of the nine participants who used microencapsulated garments. The analyses revealed an increase in thermal conductivity in the relevant areas as a reduction in the tissue between the muscle and skin. In contrast, thermal analyses conducted on the other nine individuals using the control group garments showed decreases or no change in thermal conductivity in some participants while others exhibited very slight increases. Since the participants followed a similar training plan as the other group, this outcome serves as evidence of the effect of the utilized fabrics in conjunction with the specified training programs on the participants.
Repeated Measures ANOVA tests were conducted to determine if there was a statistically significant interaction among garment group, fabric type, and time with respect to thermal camera results (Table 6). These tests were carried out separately for the upper leg, hip, and calf regions. Significant interactions were found in the upper leg region between “time × garment group” (p = 0.001), in the calf region for “time” (p = 0.038), and between “garment group × fabric type” (p = 0.006). These results indicate that both the type of garment and the timing of the measurements significantly influenced the thermal outcomes in specific body areas.
For further evaluations to determine whether the difference in thermal camera values before and after the activity was statistically significant, the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Tests were applied for each garment group.
For the control group (comprising nine participants), the thermal camera measurements revealed the following:
Upper leg region: Five participants showed a negative change, two participants showed a positive change, and two participants had no change.
Hip region: Six participants showed a negative change, and three participants showed a positive change.
Calf region: Seven participants showed a negative change, and two participants showed a positive change.
However, the thermal camera values for the control group’s three regions did not show a statistically significant difference between pre- and post-activity measurements (upper leg: p = 0.075, hip: p = 0.677, calf: p = 0.151).
For the microencapsulated product group, the thermal camera measurements indicated:
Upper leg region: Eight participants showed a positive change, and one participant showed a negative change.
Hip region: Seven participants showed a positive change, and two participants showed a negative change.
Calf region: Eight participants showed a positive change, and one participant showed a negative change.
The differences in thermal camera values before and after the activity for participants wearing microencapsulated products were statistically significant across all three regions (upper leg: p = 0.011, hip: p = 0.038, calf: p = 0.033).
In the group of volunteers wearing microencapsulated products, higher temperature values obtained via the thermal camera were observed. It is assumed that increased blood flow, indicated by these higher temperature values, contributes to the reduction in cellulite grade. Statistical analyses showed that the reduction in cellulite values was more pronounced in the group wearing microencapsulated products compared to the control group.
To examine the impact of the three different fabric types used in the study, the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was performed. The results showed no significant difference in the thermal camera measurement values across the three regions for volunteers wearing different fabrics. The thermal resistance values of the fabrics were found to be similar, supporting these findings. This indicates that while the different fabric constructions did not significantly affect the thermal camera values, wearing microencapsulated fabrics had a substantial impact on these values.
Dermatological Clinical Evaluation Results
Within the scope of the study, the average values for the degrees of orange peel appearance, both before and after the training sessions as assessed through dermatological clinical evaluations of the participants, were presented in Table 4. Regarding the obtained data, a decrease in the degree of orange peel appearance was observed in all participants who wore microencapsulated products. In contrast, participants in the control group showed either no change or a decrease in cellulite levels. This outcome indicates that while exercise contributes to the reduction in cellulite appearance, the use of microencapsulated fabrics examined in this study also plays a significant role in diminishing the visibility of cellulite.
To determine whether there was a statistically significant interaction among garment group, fabric type, and time considering the dermatological clinical evaluation results by Repeated Measures ANOVA, only the time × group interaction in the dermatological evaluation showed a significant difference (p = 0.034). Therefore, the results obtained from the dermatological evaluations before and after the activity for both the control group and the microencapsulated product group were analyzed using the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test (Table 7).
In the microencapsulated group, all nine participants who performed the training procedure showed negative values in the appearance of orange peel skin, indicating a reduction in cellulite. In the control group, which also consisted of nine participants who performed the training, two showed negative values, one showed a positive value, and six showed no change in their cellulite levels.
Moreover, to evaluate whether the difference between dermatological evaluations before and after the activity for all fabric types was statistically significant, the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was applied to each fabric type. The results indicated no significant difference in the dermatological clinical evaluation values before and after the activity for volunteers wearing different fabrics (F1: p = 0.194; F2: p = 0.059; F3: p = 0.066).
The low thermal permeability of the fabric accelerates the breakdown of microcapsules designed to reduce the appearance of orange peel skin and contributes positively to the elimination of cellulite tissue. While high thermal permeability (low thermal resistance) is desirable in everyday sportswear to facilitate the transfer of increased body heat, the aim for the microencapsulated garments studied here is to reduce the appearance of orange peel skin. Therefore, retaining heat on the body’s surface is a desired feature for these garments. In this context, one of the volunteers wearing the fabric with the highest thermal resistance (Fabric F3) experienced a two-grade reduction in the appearance of orange peel skin. Generally, since the thermal resistance values of the fabrics are similar, a greater reduction in the appearance of orange peel skin was observed in volunteers wearing microencapsulated products compared to the control group.
3.2.2. Skin Moisture Analysis Results
The average skin moisture measurements of the volunteers were measured by using Tewameter, both before and after the training sessions (Table 4). By assessing TEWL, researchers and dermatologists can evaluate the skin’s hydration level, its ability to retain moisture, and the integrity of the skin barrier. This makes the Tewameter a valuable tool in dermatological research, cosmetic testing, and clinical diagnostics to understand skin conditions, the effectiveness of skincare products, and the impact of environmental factors on skin health. In Tewameter measurements, it is expected that the last measurement will be lower than the first one, indicating a negative trend [37]. Table 8 demonstrates how the condition of the skin can be interpreted in relation to Tewameter measurement values.
In the participants wearing microencapsulated products, a decrease in skin moisture values were observed in the abdomen by 5.7 ± 4.4 g/h/m2, in the upper leg by 4.2 ± 2.6 g/h/m2, and in the calf by 3.1 ± 2.9 g/h/m2. Conversely, in the control group, increases were noted: in the abdomen by 5.2 ± 5.3 g/h/m2, in the upper leg by 3.5 ± 4.7 g/h/m2, and in the calf by 1.2 ± 4.5 g/h/m2. It was concluded that the implementation of the sports activity program had no significant contribution to the change in skin moisture levels. Instead, the increase in skin moisture was effectively achieved through the use of microencapsulated products designed to enhance skin hydration.
To evaluate the interaction among garment group, fabric type, and time with respect to skin moisture measurement results, Repeated Measures ANOVA tests were conducted. The results are provided in Table 9.
In the analysis of skin moisture measurement results, a statistically significant interaction was observed in the abdomen region between time and garment group (p = 0.036) as well as time and garment group combined with fabric (p = 0.043). However, no significant interactions were found in the upper leg and calf regions for the factors time, garment group, and fabric.
Therefore, further analyses were conducted for the abdominal region. To assess whether the difference in skin moisture values before and after the activity was statistically significant for both the control group and the microencapsulated product group, the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was applied. The results obtained are presented in Table 10.
In the control group, all nine participants showed a positive increase in abdominal skin moisture values, whereas in the microencapsulated group, all nine participants exhibited a negative increase. The positive ranks in the control group suggest that the skin moisture levels increased post-activity. The negative ranks in the microencapsulated group indicate that the skin moisture levels decreased post-activity, highlighting the effectiveness of the microencapsulated products in reducing skin moisture loss, which aligns with the intended moisturizing effect of these products. This finding supports the conclusion that the use of microencapsulated products has a significant effect on maintaining or improving skin moisture levels compared to the control group. This conclusion is reinforced by the p-values indicating statistical significance.
4. Conclusions
This study successfully combined microencapsulation technology in cosmetic textiles with sportswear to create multifunctional garments that provide skin hydration and reduce the appearance of cellulite. The research then demonstrated the performance characteristics of these products as well as the potential of microencapsulation technology to enhance the functionality of cosmetic textiles in sportswear.
Moreover, the findings are consistent with the existing literature [6,38,39,40,41] where similar applications of microencapsulation in cosmetic textiles have been shown to yield positive outcomes for skin health. Significant improvements were observed in participants wearing microencapsulated garments, including increased skin moisture levels and reduced cellulite appearance, as evidenced by dermatological evaluations and thermal imaging results. In contrast, participants in the control group showed minimal or no changes in these parameters. Despite the challenges of conducting a long-term study significantly affected by the daily lives of individuals, the findings indicate that microencapsulated products offer significant benefits over traditional sportswear.
Key findings include:
Thermal Camera Analysis: Participants wearing microencapsulated garments showed increased skin temperature, indicating improved blood flow and reduced cellulite. Significant interactions were observed in the abdominal region between time and garment group.
Skin Moisture Analysis: The Tewameter measurements revealed a decrease in skin moisture levels in the microencapsulated group, highlighting the effectiveness of the products in maintaining skin hydration.
Dermatological Evaluations: A significant reduction in the degree of orange peel appearance was observed in participants using microencapsulated garments. This was supported by both objective measurements and clinical evaluations.
The study also explored the durability of the microcapsules through domestic laundering tests, showing that the encapsulated agents remained effective even after multiple wash cycles.
While the results are encouraging, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study. The sample size was relatively small, and the long-term effects of microencapsulated garments on skin health and garment performance require further investigation. Additionally, a more detailed analysis of fabric properties before and after microencapsulation would provide valuable insights into the durability and efficacy of the treatment.
Despite these limitations, the findings of this study suggest that microencapsulation technology holds significant promise for developing innovative sportswear that offers both functional and aesthetic benefits. Future research should focus on optimizing the microencapsulation process, expanding the range of encapsulated agents, and conducting larger-scale, long-term clinical trials to fully evaluate the potential of this technology.
Conceptualization, Ö.K.N., S.B., D.T.B., A.Ş.K., İ.E.S., B.B. and Z.Ö.; methodology, Ö.K.N., S.B., D.T.B., A.Ş.K., İ.E.S., B.B. and Z.Ö.; investigation, Ö.K.N., S.B., D.T.B., A.Ş.K., İ.E.S. and Z.Ö.; data curation, Ö.K.N., S.B., A.Ş.K. and D.T.B.; writing—review and editing, Ö.K.N., S.B., A.Ş.K. and D.T.B.; visualization, D.T.B.; supervision, Z.Ö. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of EGE UNIVERSITY (protocol code: EGE.ETK.2012.12-3/18 and 3 December 2012).
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
We acknowledge Bekir Muzaffer Çolakoğlu, Görkem Balcı, and Hakan As for their support in the training sessions of the research.
Author Bekir Boyacı was employed by the company Sun Tekstil R&D Center. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Fabric testing instrument, corresponding standards, and fabric properties.
| Sample Code | Testing Instrument | Test Standard | F1 | F2 | F3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fabric Composition | - | - | Single jersey | Single jersey | Single jersey |
| Fabric Construction | - | - | 87% PA 10% Ea 3% PUR | 93% PA 7% Ea | 86% PA 14% Ea |
| Mass per unit area (g/m2) | Precision scales (Sartorious, Göttingen, Germany) | TS EN 12127 [ | 288 | 290 | 231 |
| Thickness (mm) | Digital textile thickness tester (SDL Atlas, Rock Hill, SC, USA) | TS 7128 EN ISO 5084 [ | 0.85 | 0.84 | 0.53 |
| Air permeability (L/m2 s) | Textest FX 3300 (Textest AG, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland) | EN ISO 9237 [ | 174.5 | 27.2 | 35.4 |
| Bursting Strength (kPa) | TruBurst (James H. Heal & Co. Ltd., Halifax, UK) | ISO 13938-2 [ | 521 | 400 | 410 |
| OMMC (-) | MMT (SDL Atlas, Rock Hill, SC, USA) | AATCC 195 [ | 0.58 | 0.17 | 0.17 |
| Thermal Resistance (m2 K/W)(10−3) | Sweating Guarded Hotplate (SDL Atlas, Rock Hill, SC, USA) | TS EN ISO 11092 [ | 10.06 | 10.54 | 10.58 |
| Water Vapor Resistance (m2 PA/W) | Sweating Guarded Hotplate (SDL Atlas, Rock Hill, SC, USA) | TS EN ISO 11092 [ | 13.264 | 14.255 | 14.124 |
Microcapsulation and additional materials applied to fabric samples.
| Auxiliary Materials | Commercial Name | Effect | Quantity (g/L) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Microcapsule | Captex 20264 (Huile Amincissante) | Reduces the appearance of orange peel | 60 |
| Captex 20401 (Huile Hydra Marine) | Provide moisture | 60 | |
| Lemon Eucalyptus | Eliminate odors | 20 | |
| Additional materials | Fixopad | Binder | 80 |
| Tubingal TAC | Softener | 30 | |
| Rucowet MKS | Wetting agent | 10 |
The training procedure of wear trials.
| Number of Workouts | Workout Durations | Workout Plans | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adaptation workout | 1 day | 30 min/day | 30 min adaptation workout for treadmill |
| 1st and 2nd weeks | 2 days/week | 50 min/day | 10 min warm up movements |
| 3rd and 4th weeks | 3 days/week | 50 min/day | 10 min warm up movements |
| 5th and 6th weeks | 3 days/week | 60 min/day | 10 min warm up movements |
Measurement locations for Tewameter measures.
| Measurement Location | Measuring Area |
|---|---|
| Abdomen | Measure 3 cm to the right of the navel |
| Upper leg | Take a measurement from the middle back of the upper thigh |
| Calf | Take a measurement at the widest part of the calf |
Participant information and measurement results for dermatological evaluation, skin moisture (Tewameter), and thermal camera.
| Part. No | BMI | Garment Group | Fabric Code | Dermatological Evaluation (Grade) | Skin Moisture Tewameter Measurement (g/h/m2) | Thermal Camera Measurement (°C) | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abdomen | Upper Leg | Calf | Upper Leg | Hip | Calf | ||||||||||||
| Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | ||||
| 1 | 20.3 | Control group | F1 | G3 | G3 | 1.4 | 19.9 | 1.1 | 10.8 | 0.5 | 9.7 | 34.2 | 33.6 | 33.1 | 33.0 | 33.7 | 33.5 |
| 2 | 25.7 | G3 | G2-3 | 0.6 | 6.6 | 1.2 | 5.9 | 7.1 | 4.9 | 33.8 | 33.3 | 34.2 | 34.1 | 33.4 | 33.1 | ||
| 3 | 25.1 | G2 | G2 | 24.9 | 29.0 | 7.2 | 4.2 | 6.1 | 6.8 | 32.2 | 32.0 | 32.5 | 32.4 | 32.5 | 32.3 | ||
| 4 | 19.8 | F2 | G3 | G2-3 | 1.5 | 5.0 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 1.5 | 33.8 | 33.9 | 32.6 | 33.5 | 32.6 | 32.4 | |
| 5 | 20.7 | G3 | G3 | 8.5 | 14.8 | 6.1 | 16.3 | 3.8 | 7.8 | 32.9 | 32.9 | 33.0 | 31.8 | 32.4 | 31.8 | ||
| 6 | 32.5 | G3 | G3 | 11.2 | 12.8 | 4.7 | 5.6 | 4.9 | 3.7 | 30.6 | 30.3 | 30.4 | 30.2 | 30.3 | 30.2 | ||
| 7 | 19.1 | F3 | G3 | G2-3 | 4.0 | 6.4 | 0.3 | 7.2 | 0.7 | 5.3 | 33.7 | 33.7 | 33.8 | 34.0 | 33.1 | 33.5 | |
| 8 | 22.5 | G2 | G2 | 2.1 | 3.9 | 0.3 | 3.0 | 2.6 | 3.1 | 32.3 | 32.5 | 32.8 | 33.3 | 32.8 | 33.0 | ||
| 9 | 28.4 | G3 | G3 | 10.0 | 12.8 | 6.0 | 4.8 | 14.6 | 8.2 | 31.2 | 29.2 | 31.4 | 30.9 | 31.4 | 29.6 | ||
| 10 | 19.8 | Microcap. group | F1 | G2 | G1 | 8.4 | 4.6 | 8.0 | 4.8 | 5.4 | 7.1 | 33.2 | 33.1 | 32.0 | 33.3 | 31.8 | 32.5 |
| 11 | 25.0 | G3 | G2 | 19.8 | 3.5 | 11.3 | 1.4 | 11.0 | 6.2 | 29.0 | 31.7 | 28.2 | 31.7 | 29.4 | 32.6 | ||
| 12 | 31.6 | G3 | G2-3 | 9.5 | 4.8 | 4.3 | 0.6 | 4.8 | 1.6 | 33.0 | 33.9 | 33.8 | 33.2 | 32.2 | 33.0 | ||
| 13 | 23.4 | F2 | G3 | G2 | 7.4 | 3.3 | 6.9 | 1.5 | 7.5 | 1.7 | 33.0 | 34.9 | 33.1 | 34.9 | 34.0 | 34.5 | |
| 14 | 21.3 | G3 | G2 | 8.3 | 6.2 | 5.4 | 1.2 | 4.6 | 3.8 | 33.2 | 35.3 | 33.4 | 35.2 | 34.2 | 34.8 | ||
| 15 | 35.1 | G3 | G2 | 3.2 | 0.9 | 3.1 | 1.1 | 2.6 | 0.4 | 31.6 | 33.7 | 31.6 | 33.6 | 31.7 | 34.1 | ||
| 16 | 22.0 | F3 | G3 | G2-3 | 6.2 | 0.8 | 3.3 | 0.1 | 4.7 | 0.8 | 28.8 | 31.6 | 30.1 | 30.8 | 31.6 | 31.7 | |
| 17 | 24.2 | G3 | G1-2 | 9.0 | 0.8 | 5.8 | 0.6 | 9.0 | 1.1 | 31.6 | 31.8 | 32.2 | 31.6 | 32.1 | 31.5 | ||
| 18 | 26.3 | G2 | G1 | 8.9 | 4.1 | 4.9 | 3.9 | 7.7 | 6.5 | 30.3 | 30.5 | 30.4 | 30.5 | 31.0 | 31.5 | ||
Participant information and measurement results for dermatological evaluation, skin moisture (Tewameter), and thermal camera.
| Measurement Location | Factors | Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper leg | Time | 2.507 | 1 | 2.507 | 6.465 | 0.126 |
| Garment group | 0.967 | 1 | 0.967 | 0.166 | 0.723 | |
| Fabric | 17.124 | 2 | 8.562 | 3.316 | 0.142 | |
| Time × Garment group | 7.200 | 1 | 7.200 | 925.750 | 0.001 | |
| Time × Fabric | 0.961 | 2 | 0.480 | 0.655 | 0.568 | |
| Garment group × Fabric | 11.061 | 2 | 5.530 | 2.627 | 0.187 | |
| Time × Garment group × Fabric | 0.111 | 2 | 0.055 | 0.104 | 0.903 | |
| Hip | Time | 2.454 | 1 | 2.454 | 6.343 | 0.128 |
| Garment group | 1.521 | 1 | 1.521 | 0.401 | 0.591 | |
| Fabric | 6.377 | 2 | 3.189 | 1.186 | 0.394 | |
| Time × Garment group | 3.121 | 1 | 3.121 | 12.639 | 0.071 | |
| Time × Fabric | 0.994 | 2 | 0.497 | 0.939 | 0.463 | |
| Garment group × Fabric | 20.884 | 2 | 10.442 | 3.362 | 0.139 | |
| Time × Garment group × Fabric | 1.667 | 2 | 0.834 | 1.269 | 0.374 | |
| Calf | Time | 0.810 | 1 | 0.810 | 24.923 | 0.038 |
| Garment group | 0.188 | 1 | 0.188 | 0.075 | 0.810 | |
| Fabric | 4.580 | 2 | 2.290 | 1.674 | 0.296 | |
| Time × Garment group | 3.361 | 1 | 3.361 | 7.903 | 0.107 | |
| Time × Fabric | 1.207 | 2 | 0.603 | 1.181 | 0.395 | |
| Garment group × Fabric | 20.642 | 2 | 10.321 | 24.656 | 0.006 | |
| Time × Garment group × Fabric | 0.802 | 2 | 0.401 | 0.782 | 0.517 |
Within Subjects Design: Time + Garment group + Fabric + Time × Garment group + Time × Fabric + Garment group × Fabric + Time × Garment group × Fabric.
Participant information and measurement results for dermatological evaluation, skin moisture (Tewameter), and thermal camera.
| Garment Group | Pre-Post Tests | N | Mean Rank | Sum of Ranks |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Control Group | Negative Ranks | 2 a | 2.00 | 4.00 |
| Positive Ranks | 1 b | 2.00 | 2.00 | |
| Ties | 6 c | |||
| Total | 9 | |||
| Microencapsulated Group | Negative Ranks | 9 a | 5.00 | 45.00 |
| Positive Ranks | 0 b | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Ties | 0 c | |||
| Total | 9 |
Note: Based on negative ranks. Note: p < 0.05, a Post < Pre; b Post > Pre; c Post = Pre.
Interpretation of Tewameter values.
| TEWL (g/h/m2) | Interpretation |
|---|---|
| 0–10 | Very Healthy Condition |
| 10–15 | Healthy Condition |
| 15–25 | Normal Condition |
| 25–30 | Strained Skin |
| >30 | Critical Condition |
Results of Repeated Measures ANOVA for interaction among garment group, fabric type, and time on skin moisture measurements.
| Measurement Location | Factors | Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper leg | Time | 1.150 | 1 | 1.150 | 0.236 | 0.675 |
| Garment group | 8.507 | 1 | 8.507 | 1.174 | 0.392 | |
| Fabric | 18.552 | 2 | 9.276 | 0.550 | 0.615 | |
| Time × Garment group | 132.378 | 1 | 132.378 | 5.192 | 0.150 | |
| Time × Fabric | 1.310 | 2 | 0.655 | 0.69 | 0.935 | |
| Garment group × Fabric | 10.025 | 2 | 5.012 | 0.257 | 0.785 | |
| Time × Garment group × Fabric | 4.536 | 2 | 2.268 | 0.854 | 0.491 | |
| Abdomen | Time | 0.605 | 1 | 0.605 | 0.052 | 0.841 |
| Garment group | 119.538 | 1 | 119.538 | 0.805 | 0.464 | |
| Fabric | 188.456 | 2 | 94.228 | 2.537 | 0.194 | |
| Time × Garment group | 270.420 | 1 | 270.420 | 26.381 | 0.036 | |
| Time × Fabric | 12.235 | 2 | 6.118 | 0.388 | 0.701 | |
| Garment group × Fabric | 21.792 | 2 | 10.896 | 0.229 | 0.805 | |
| Time × Garment group × Fabric | 53.523 | 2 | 26.761 | 7.597 | 0.043 | |
| Calf | Time | 8.604 | 1 | 8.604 | 0.806 | 0.464 |
| Garment group | 0.676 | 1 | 0.676 | 0.030 | 0.879 | |
| Fabric | 37.328 | 2 | 18.664 | 0.802 | 0.509 | |
| Time × Garment group | 41.102 | 1 | 41.102 | 3.406 | 0.206 | |
| Time × Fabric | 10.404 | 2 | 5.202 | 0.499 | 0.640 | |
| Garment group × Fabric | 1.375 | 2 | 0.687 | 0.145 | 0.870 | |
| Time × Garment group × Fabric | 0.275 | 2 | 0.138 | 0.036 | 0.965 |
Within Subjects Design: Time + Garment group + Fabric + Time × Garment group + Time × Fabric + Garment group × Fabric + Time × Garment group × Fabric.
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Results for pre- and post-activity skin moisture values in the abdominal region for control and microencapsulated product groups.
| Garment Group | Pre-Post Tests | N | Mean Rank | Sum of Ranks |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Control Group | Negative Ranks | 0 a | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Positive Ranks | 9 b | 5.00 | 45.00 | |
| Ties | 0 c | |||
| Total | 9 | |||
| Microencapsulated Group | Negative Ranks | 9 a | 5.00 | 45.00 |
| Positive Ranks | 0 b | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Ties | 0 c | |||
| Total | 9 |
Note: Based on negative ranks. Note: p < 0.05, a Post < Pre; b Post > Pre; c Post = Pre.
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Details
; Öndoğan, Ziynet 1
; Derya Tama Birkocak 2
; Boz, Serkan 1
; Arzu Şen Kılıç 1
; Boyacı, Bekir 3
; Sağduyu, İlgen Ertam 4
1 Faculty of Fashion and Design, Ege University, 35040 Bornova, Turkey;
2 Textile Engineering Department, Ege University, 35040 Bornova, Turkey
3 Sun Tekstil R&D Center, 35860 Torbalı, Turkey;
4 Faculty of Medicine, Ege University, 35040 Bornova, Turkey;