1. Introduction
As global concerns over food security due to climate change and population growth rise, interest in smart greenhouses capable of stable crop production in extreme climates has increased. Particularly in hot, arid regions such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the application of smart greenhouse technologies has become crucial [1,2,3,4,5]. During the summer months, daytime temperatures in the UAE can soar up to 50 °C, and the intense solar radiation poses serious challenges to crop cultivation [6]. To maintain productivity under such extreme climatic conditions, the development and application of effective greenhouse cooling systems are essential [7].
Various studies have been conducted on cooling methods for smart greenhouses in hot, arid climates, proposing different technologies and systems for controlling the internal environment. In the Al Ain region, where extreme summer temperatures can reach nearly 50 °C, especially between July and August, the efficiency of chillers declines significantly during the daytime. In response, this study proposes a cooling system design comprising a screw chiller, fan coil units (FCUs), and a thermal energy storage tank, as illustrated in Figure 1. This system operates by producing chilled water at night, when temperatures are lower, and storing it in the thermal energy storage tank. During the day, the stored chilled water is used for cooling the greenhouse. By circulating the chilled water stored in the thermal energy storage tank, the system supplies cool air to the greenhouse through the FCUs to maintain optimal growing conditions for crops.
Soussi et al. (2022) provided a comprehensive review of climate control and cooling systems for greenhouses in hot, arid climates. The study analyzed various cooling technologies, such as evaporative cooling, heat exchangers, and desiccant systems, and explained how these technologies efficiently control temperature and humidity within greenhouses. The research focused on minimizing water and energy consumption while enhancing crop productivity in hot climates [8].
Bawazir and Friedrich (2022) designed a large-scale solar adsorption cooling system, evaluating its energy-saving and environmental benefits. Their research showed that adsorption cooling could reduce energy consumption by up to 74% compared to conventional chillers, with a corresponding reduction in CO2 emissions by approximately 75%. Using TRNSYS simulations, they analyzed the system’s optimization in Riyadh, focusing on the sizing of solar collectors and storage tanks [9].
In a similar context, Al-Nini et al. (2023) explored the economic and environmental advantages of district cooling systems that integrate renewable energy and thermal energy storage. The study explained methods to maximize the efficiency of cooling systems in hot, arid climates and provided insights into designing sustainable, energy-saving systems [10].
Jemai et al. (2022) explored the potential for closed greenhouse systems, proposing various design solutions to reduce energy and water consumption. Closed greenhouses can harvest and recycle solar energy for both heating and cooling, providing a sustainable approach to agriculture in hot, arid regions [11].
Ghiasi (2023) comprehensively reviewed various aspects of smart greenhouse systems, including structural design, material selection, and climate control strategies. The study emphasized the integration of advanced technologies to enhance energy efficiency, productivity, and sustainability in greenhouse operations. Sustainable greenhouse operation methods were proposed through the implementation of smart agricultural technologies and energy management systems [12].
Mahdi-Ul-Ishtiaque (2020) investigated methods to improve the efficiency of an earth pipe cooling system, a passive cooling method utilizing underground temperatures. The study proposed design improvements and operational strategies to enhance system performance and presented it as a sustainable alternative to conventional mechanical cooling methods [13].
Ajarostghi et al. (2022) explored the use of thermal storage systems to manage energy in greenhouses more effectively. The study proposed using heat stored during the day and releasing it at night to enhance cooling effects, significantly reducing temperature fluctuations and promoting sustainable energy use [14].
Research on the impact of external temperatures on chiller performance in hot climates is critical. Zhang et al. (2020) analyzed the effects of rising external temperatures on multi-chiller systems used in data centers. The study concluded that higher temperatures reduce cooling efficiency and increase energy consumption, primarily due to the increased load on compressors as heat rejection becomes more challenging at higher temperatures [15].
Yang et al. (2015) proposed methods to mitigate the impact of high external temperatures on chiller performance through evaporative cooling systems. The study demonstrated that optimizing heat exchange at the condenser could prevent performance degradation in high-temperature environments [16].
Wang et al. (2014) experimentally investigated the effect of external temperature on the performance of air-cooled chillers and confirmed that higher external temperatures could lead to increased condenser pressure and reduced chiller performance [17].
These studies emphasize the importance of developing technical solutions to maintain chiller performance and cooling efficiency in hot climates. The research highlights various technological alternatives for optimizing energy savings and environmental sustainability in smart greenhouse cooling systems operating in hot, arid climates.
In this study, we collected basic data, such as internal and external temperatures, from a smart greenhouse located in the Al Ain region of the UAE. Using these data, we validated a simulation model referenced by Park et al. (2022). The cooling load reduction effect and chiller performance for each component of the cooling system were analyzed [18]. In addition, the greenhouse simulation model used in this study used a heat balance algorithm, and the related equations are shown in reference [19]. The primary objective of this study is to design an efficient cooling system for smart greenhouses in hot, arid climates and to propose strategies for maximizing energy savings and crop productivity. Based on the reduced cooling load, we aim to compare the effects of chiller COP variation with outdoor air temperature and different thermal energy storage capacities on chiller size and cooling energy consumption.
2. Methods
2.1. Overview of the Site
An overview of the field demonstration site is presented in Table 1. The demonstration site is located at the AL Kuwaitat Research Station in the UAE. The geographical coordinates are latitude 24.43° N, longitude 54.65° E, and an elevation of 27 m above sea level. The site experiences significant climatic variations, with maximum outdoor temperatures reaching 47 °C, minimum temperatures dropping to 5 °C, and an average temperature of 27.1 °C, illustrating the considerable day–night temperature fluctuations [20].
The total area of the demonstration site is 2070 m2, with a cooling area of 1536 m2 and a ridge height of 6 m. Greenhouse envelopes are designed with the purpose of insulation performance and include materials such as polycarbonate (PC) double layers, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), glass, polyethylene (PE), and polyolefin (PO) films. The greenhouse is equipped with Poly Methyl Methacrylate (PMMA) cladding and shading systems. Additionally, a fan and pad cooling system is installed to regulate the internal temperature and humidity of the greenhouse. The fan and pad system operates by circulating cold water through cellulose panels while simultaneously drawing air through the panels using fans, thereby achieving evaporative cooling. The temperature difference between the inlet and outlet is approximately 5–7 °C, which is a commonly used system in desert climates [21]. The crops selected for cultivation in this facility are cucumbers and tomatoes, and the primary goal of this research is to evaluate the efficiency of the cooling system under extreme hot and dry climate conditions, as well as to optimize the environmental conditions for crop growth.
This study aims to assess the performance of the cooling system and ensure optimal growing conditions within the greenhouse, contributing to the development of sustainable agricultural practices in harsh climates.
2.2. Overview of Simulation
In this study, load calculations were conducted using various climate data to develop a cooling package for a desert-adaptive smart greenhouse. Specifically, IWEC (International Weather for Energy Calculation) data, weather data from ADAFSA (Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority) for Dubai, and ASHRAE design weather data were integrated to account for temperature, humidity, and solar radiation in the calculations. Figure 2 depicts an actual external view of the greenhouse and a simulation modeling image.
For energy simulations, EnergyPlus 8.9, a program developed by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), was utilized.
The optimal growing temperatures for cucumbers and tomatoes were considered: 22–28 °C during the day and 15–18 °C at night [22]. Accordingly, the set temperatures inside the greenhouse were maintained at 30 °C during the day and 18 °C at night. This configuration was designed to create the optimal conditions within the smart greenhouse to enhance crop growth while maximizing cooling efficiency.
The simulation aimed to balance the temperature and humidity controls to improve energy efficiency and crop productivity in the harsh desert climate.
2.3. Chiller Performance Variations
Chiller performance is highly dependent on external ambient air temperature, with air-cooled chillers being particularly sensitive to rising temperatures. The efficiency of chillers is measured by the coefficient of performance (COP), which is defined as the ratio of the cooling capacity generated by the chiller to the energy consumed to achieve it. As the ambient air temperature increases, the process of releasing heat from the refrigerant in the condenser becomes less efficient, leading to a rise in the condensing temperature. This, in turn, forces the compressor to consume more energy. According to research, for every 1 °C increase in ambient air temperature, the COP decreases by approximately 2%, potentially reducing cooling capacity and energy efficiency by 2–6%.
This performance degradation is particularly pronounced in high-temperature environments. As the load on the chiller increases, energy consumption rises, and the overall system performance deteriorates significantly. In air-cooled chillers, heat is released to the environment through air, and as outdoor temperatures rise, this process becomes increasingly difficult, resulting in accelerated chiller performance decline. The impact of such conditions not only leads to increased energy consumption but can also have long-term negative effects on equipment reliability [23,24,25]. Figure 3 shows the performance curve of the actual air-cooled scroll chiller’s COP in relation to the external ambient air temperature.
In response to this issue, a thermal energy storage (TES) system is proposed as a potential solution. By operating chillers at night when ambient air temperatures are lower, chilled water can be stored in a thermal tank and utilized during the day when outdoor temperatures are higher. This strategy helps mitigate the performance drop and improve energy efficiency during peak daytime temperatures.
Therefore, optimizing chiller performance in high-temperature environments requires the implementation of control strategies that adjust based on ambient temperature variations. Additionally, in the design phase, selecting chiller systems that are suited for the anticipated ambient air temperature conditions, as well as incorporating energy-saving technologies, is essential to maintain long-term operational efficiency.
2.4. Calculation of Thermal Energy Storage Tank Capacity
The calculation of thermal energy storage tank capacity is essential to maximizing the efficiency of the cooling system. First, the total amount of energy that the thermal energy storage tank must store is calculated based on the required peak cooling load. Various factors, such as outdoor air temperature, solar radiation, and the building’s insulation performance, are considered when determining the cooling load, which in turn establishes the cooling capacity that the thermal energy storage tank must handle. The system is designed to store chilled water produced during the chiller’s nighttime operation for use during the day when cooling demand is higher. Table 2 shows the details of the thermal energy storage tank.
An important factor in calculating thermal energy storage tank capacity is the temperature difference (ΔT). The larger the ΔT, the more energy can be stored with a smaller volume of water. Typically, the ΔT is set between 5 °C and 10 °C. The thermal energy storage tank capacity can be calculated using the following formula [26].
Q = m·c·ΔT
whereQ: total energy stored (in joules or kilowatt-hours);
m: mass of the water (in kilograms);
c: specific heat capacity of water (4.18 kJ/kg °C);
ΔT: temperature difference (in °C).
This formula takes into account the mass of the water, its specific heat capacity, and the temperature difference, allowing for an accurate calculation of the total energy storage capacity required. Based on this calculation, the optimal size of the thermal energy storage tank can be determined to meet the cooling system’s demands efficiently.
Figure 4 is a graph illustrating the hourly cooling load of the greenhouse, the thermal energy storage tank’s storage capacity, and the chiller’s operating load. From 00:00 to 08:00, the chiller operates to cool the greenhouse, storing the excess chilled water in the thermal energy storage tank. The graph depicts the changes in the greenhouse’s hourly cooling load, the thermal energy storage tank’s capacity, and the chiller’s operating load when the stored chilled water is utilized by releasing it from 09:00 when the outdoor air temperature is at its peak.
3. Results
3.1. Chiller Performance Variations with Outdoor Air Temperature
The performance of the chiller varies significantly depending on the outdoor air temperature, which is measured by the coefficient of performance (COP). As shown in Figure 5, there is a clear trend indicating that the COP decreases as the outdoor air temperature increases. According to climate data from the UAE, the maximum outdoor air temperature in July can reach 46.6 °C, at which point the COP of the chiller was recorded as 2.18. This represents a 24.6% decrease compared to the COP of 2.89 observed at 35 °C.
Additionally, during February, when the lowest recorded temperature was 8.2 °C, the COP of the chiller reached 4.6. This is 2.1 times higher than the COP observed at 46.6 °C, demonstrating that the chiller’s performance improves significantly as the outdoor air temperature decreases. These results highlight the substantial impact of outdoor air temperature on chiller efficiency, particularly in extreme climates like that of the UAE.
3.2. Chiller Energy Consumption Variation with Thermal Energy Storage
Figure 6 illustrates the changes in chiller COP, load, and energy consumption over 24 h on July 23rd in response to outdoor air temperature variations. During the night (00:00 to 08:00), the average outdoor air temperature was 28.3 °C, and the chiller’s average COP was recorded at 3.67. In contrast, by 3 p.m., the outdoor air temperature reached a peak of 46.6 °C, resulting in a COP drop to 2.20, representing approximately a 40% decrease in efficiency.
Figure 6 also simulates the strategy of operating the chiller at night to store chilled water in a thermal energy storage tank, which is then used during the day as temperatures rise. This approach mitigates the performance degradation of the chiller caused by high daytime temperatures. According to the simulation results, setting the thermal energy storage capacity to 30% could result in a 14.4% reduction in annual chiller energy consumption.
This illustrates how thermal energy storage can be leveraged to reduce energy usage and improve efficiency, particularly in environments with high temperature fluctuations.
3.3. Variation in Chiller Energy Consumption and Capacity with Thermal Energy Storage Capacity
Figure 7 presents the changes in chiller energy consumption as the thermal energy storage capacity varies. In the baseline condition, where no thermal energy storage tank is utilized, the annual chiller energy consumption was recorded at 324,606 kWh. However, when the thermal energy storage capacity was set to 40%, the annual energy consumption decreased to 275,859 kWh, which represents a 15.0% reduction compared to the baseline. This finding suggests that incorporating thermal energy storage helps mitigate the performance degradation of the chiller and reduces overall energy consumption.
As the thermal energy storage capacity increases, the annual chiller energy consumption continues to decrease, but 40% is identified as a turning point. Beyond this capacity, the energy consumption begins to rise again, indicating that excessive thermal storage may negatively impact the system’s energy efficiency due to the over-accumulation and utilization of stored chilled water.
When the thermal energy storage capacity exceeds 50%, it significantly reduces the peak load on the chiller, which typically occurs during the day when outdoor air temperatures rise and the cooling load is maximized. By storing chilled water generated during the cooler night hours and using it during peak demand periods, the system can distribute the chiller load more evenly and reduce operational time. This study found that with a 60% thermal energy storage capacity, the chiller size could be reduced by up to 26.5%, offering the potential for reducing initial installation costs and enhancing long-term energy efficiency.
However, when the thermal energy storage capacity exceeds 60%, the chiller load increases again, as the system requires additional energy to fill the storage tanks with more chilled water than necessary. This leads to increased energy consumption. Therefore, when designing the thermal storage system, it is crucial to consider the optimal capacity that balances energy savings and cooling efficiency. Optimizing the thermal storage capacity is essential to minimizing energy consumption and maximizing the overall efficiency of the cooling system.
4. Conclusions
This study analyzed the performance of thermal energy storage tanks and chillers to optimize cooling systems in smart greenhouses in hot, arid climates. In environments like the UAE, where summer temperatures rise drastically, the performance degradation of chillers becomes a critical issue. To address this problem, a cooling system incorporating thermal storage tanks was proposed, with a focus on analyzing the energy consumption and performance variation in chillers based on thermal energy storage capacity.
The results indicate that chiller performance is heavily dependent on external temperatures, with the COP significantly decreasing as daytime temperatures rise. Specifically, during the peak summer month of July, when outdoor air temperatures reached 46.6 °C, the COP of the chiller dropped to 2.18, a 24.6% decrease compared to its performance at 35 °C. This decline in COP results in increased energy consumption and reduced overall system efficiency. Conversely, at night, when the outdoor air temperature dropped to 28.3 °C, the chiller’s COP increased to 3.67.
Considering these temperature-driven performance variations, this study confirmed that using thermal energy storage tanks to store chilled water at night and utilize it during the day is an effective strategy for energy savings. Specifically, increasing the thermal energy storage capacity up to 40% resulted in an annual energy reduction of 15%. However, beyond a 50% storage capacity, the system could further reduce peak chiller load, but at 60% capacity or higher, energy consumption began to increase again, indicating that an oversized thermal energy storage system could lead to inefficiencies.
Therefore, this study concludes that, for efficient operation of cooling systems in smart greenhouses in hot, arid climates, it is essential to appropriately size the thermal energy storage tank and implement control strategies that account for chiller performance variations. Setting the thermal energy storage capacity below 50% is identified as the optimal range for maximizing energy savings, providing critical guidance for the design and operation of cooling systems.
This study focused on energy savings and performance metrics but did not address the long-term maintenance, economic feasibility, and operational schedule strategies of the proposed system. These areas require further investigation. In the future, using control algorithms, including machine learning-based optimization, to dynamically adjust cooling and storage strategies in response to real-time environmental and operational data could improve system performance. Furthermore, conducting studies that include economic analysis, lifecycle assessment, and scalability to various greenhouse sizes and climate conditions would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the system’s feasibility and broader applicability.
Conceptualization, S.-G.C. and D.-Y.P.; Methodology, S.-G.C., D.-Y.P., D.-S.C. and Y.-H.J.; Validation, S.-G.C., D.-Y.P. and D.-S.C.; Writing—original draft, S.-G.C. and D.-Y.P.; Writing—review & editing, S.-G.C., D.-Y.P., D.-S.C. and Y.-H.J.; Visualization, S.-G.C. and Y.-H.J.; Supervision, D.-Y.P., D.-S.C. and Y.-H.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author Sul-Geon Choi was employed by the company WooWon M&E Inc. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Hourly thermal energy storage tank capacity and chiller operating cooling load.
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. Comparison of chiller COP, chiller cooling load, and energy consumption during nighttime thermal energy storage.
Enlarge this image.Figure 7. Comparison of chiller energy consumption and capacity based on thermal energy storage tank capacity.
Overview of the smart greenhouse.
| Category | Contents | |
|---|---|---|
| Site | United Arab Emirates | |
| Latitude | 24.43° | |
| Longitude | 54.65° | |
| Height above sea level | 27 m | |
| Building area | 2070 m2 | |
| Test bed area | 1536 m2 | |
| Height | 6 m | |
| Outdoor air temperature | Min. | 5.0 °C |
| Max. | 47.0 °C | |
| Avg. | 27.1 °C | |
| Solar radiation | Min. | 0 W/m2 |
| Max. | 1051 W/m2 | |
| Avg. | 252 W/m2 | |
| External illuminance | Min. | 0 lux |
| Max. | 116,300 lux | |
| Avg. | 27,584 lux | |
| Covering material | Material | PMMA |
| Thickness | 16.1 mm | |
| Coefficient of heat transmission | 6.67 | |
| Visible transmittance | 0.732 | |
| Fan and pad system | Materials | Cellulose |
| Sheet angle | 90° | |
| Bisector angle | 15° | |
| Area | 45 m × 2 m = 90 m2 | |
| Thickness | 0.2 m | |
| Air velocity | 1.5 m/s | |
| Supply water flow rates | 420 LPM | |
| Chiller | Type | Air Cooled Screw Chiller |
| Cooling capacity | 294.4 kW | |
| Total Unit Power | 134.7 kW | |
| Entering Air Temperature | 44.9 °C | |
| Quantity | 2 | |
Overview of the thermal energy storage tank.
| Category | Contents |
|---|---|
| Peak cooling load | 373 kW |
| Nighttime thermal storage period | 8 h (00:00~08:00) |
| Daily peak cooling load | 4298 kWh |
| Thermal energy storage rate | 5~85% |
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Details
; Doo-Yong Park 2 ; Doo-Sung Choi 2 ; Yong-Ho, Jung 2 1 Research Institute, WooWon M&E Inc., Seoul 08768, Republic of Korea;
2 Department of Building Equipment System and Fire Protection Engineering, Chungwoon University, Incheon 22100, Republic of Korea;