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Introduction
In recent years, the global energy crisis and environmental pollution have become more and more serious. Global carbon emissions reached 37.4 Gt in 2023 [1], 8.4% higher than a decade ago. As carbon emissions increase year by year, the demand for high-efficiency energy utilization and renewable energy technologies is becoming increasingly urgent for all countries under the reduction targets of the Paris Agreement [2]. Among many countries, China's carbon emissions 2023 account for 33.7% of the global amount, and the increased amount is also the highest globally [3]. Therefore, under the pressure of the dual-carbon target, China has paid particular attention to developing new energy technologies [4]. China has emphasized integrated energy systems as a promising technology path to meet all the environmental challenges. In the “14th Five-Year Plan for Modern Energy System”, it is proposed to promote the construction of a new type of power system and explore the joint scheduling mechanism of multiple energy sources such as electric power, heat, natural gas, etc., to promote the coordinated operation [5].
Historically, traditional sectors such as electricity, heating, and other energy domains operate independently. However, the evolution of distributed energy technologies has catalyzed an increasing interaction among these sectors [6]. Historically isolated planning, operational, and control strategies have contributed to suboptimal energy utilization efficiencies across the system [7]. Consequently, there is an emerging consensus on the necessity for an integrated and coordinated management approach to bolster renewable energy consumption and enhance overall energy efficiency. This led to the conceptualization of the Integrated Energy System (IES). IESs can contain diverse flexibility resources, including multi-energy supply and conversion, energy storage, and demand response mechanisms [8]. Among them, the demand response (DR) strategy plays a pivotal role by guiding users to modify their energy consumption patterns in response to energy market prices or incentive signals, thereby facilitating peak load transferring or curtailing, enhancing supply–demand equilibrium, and accommodating the operation of contemporary new energy systems [9]. Meanwhile, traditional DR is confined to the electrical sector. Wang et al. [10] proposed Integrated Demand Response (IDR) through the lens of IES. In an IDR program, energy users can change their energy consumption and the source of consumed energy. Multiple energy systems such as heating/cooling, natural gas, biomass, and electric power...