Presentation and Analysis of “Three Teachings Syncretism” in Song and Jin Poetry and Its Modern Significance

Abstract

The “Three Teachings Syncretism” (sanjiao heyi, 三教合一), i.e., the integration of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, represents an important religious philosophy in ancient China. This article aims to analyze how this ideology is presented and expressed directly in Song and Jin poetry, along with its modern value and significance. To achieve the research objectives, the paper isolates related poems from the Complete Song Poetry and Complete Liao Jin Poetry as the research objects. First, it organizes and classifies the relevant poems through the ways in which the idea of “Three Teachings Syncretism” is presented. Second, it examines the reasons behind this phenomenon, including the intellectualization of poetry and the Confucian academic background of Buddhist monks and Daoist priests. Thirdly, it explores the value and significance of this thought for modern China, showcasing the inherent diversity, inclusiveness, and harmony in Chinese culture.

1. Introduction

From its establishment, the Song (宋) Dynasty (960–1279) coexisted with the Liao (遼) (916–1125) and Jin (金) (1115–1234) Dynasties. This period was relatively stable politically, and the country was comparatively unified. Thus, Chinese culture began to bloom once again. Unlike the Liao Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty occupied the Central Plain (中原). Its culture developed rapidly, and ultimately, its achievements were comparable to those of the Song Dynasty. Regarding ideological development, the ideas of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism began to deeply integrate with and permeate each other, and the ideology of “Three Teachings Syncretism” (三教合一)¹ began to be widely discussed and accepted. Regarding literary development, Song poetry became more inclined towards reasoning and discussion, forming its own unique style, unlike Tang poetry, which focused more on the expression of emotions. By “borrowing talents from other dynasties” (借才異代), Jin poetry also developed, being influenced by Song poetry. Under the dual influence of ideological and literary development, the concept of “Three Teachings Syncretism” or “Three Teachings” was frequently mentioned in Song and Jin poetry. This article collected relevant Song and Jin poems which expressed “Three Teachings Syncretism”, analyzed how this idea was presented in these poems, explored the formation reason behind this phenomenon, and revealed its contemporary significance.

1.1. Literature Review

In previous research works, the connotations and historical development of the “Three Teachings Syncretism” have already been discussed and studied thoroughly, so they will not be elaborated on here.² This literature review only discusses the concept of “Three Teachings Syncretism” in Song and Jin poetry. The previous representative research on this topic can be mainly divided into three aspects, discussed below.

First, the poems have been cited as evidence in philosophical research. In philosophical treatises, many researchers used related poems as evidence to support and explain the philosophical proposition of “Three Teachings Syncretism”. For example, in Mou Zhongjian’s book, A Brief History of the Relationship Between Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism (Mou 2023, pp. 309–407), Chapter Six³ cited the poems of Wang Chongyang to illustrate the contribution of Quanzhen Daoism to the integration of the three teachings. Similarly, Guo Weichuan’s book, Confucian Rule of Rites and Chinese Scholarship: A Collection of Historical Studies and Discussions on Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism (Guo 2002) and Li Silong’s paper, “Three Types of Confluence among Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism” (S. Li 2011), both used relevant poems to illustrate their argument.

Second, the influence of Buddhist and Daoist thoughts on poetry creation have been studied from a literary criticism perspective. For instance, Zhou Yukai’s book, Chinese Chan Buddhism and Poetry (Zhou 1992), explored the profound influence of Chan Buddhism on the creation techniques of many poets from the Jiangxi Poetry School (江西詩派). Wang Shuizhao’s book, General Theory of Song Dynasty Literature (S. Wang 1997), particularly elaborated on the penetration of Buddhist thought into literary creation and the impact of Daoist immortality and cultivation on poetic imagination. In addition, Luo Ligang’s book, Philosophy and Literature during the Song and Yuan Dynasties (Luo 1999), also pointed out that the theoretical integration of the three teachings in the late Song Dynasty stimulated the emphasis on literary creation skills.

Third, the concept of “Three Teachings Syncretism” in the literary works of specific historical figures has been studied. Taking the study on the two Quanzhen Daoists Ma Yu (馬鈺) and Qiu Chuji (丘處機) as examples, Yang Zhaohua’s book, Study on Ma Yu (Yang 2017), cited Ma Yu’s poems about the idea of “Three Teachings Syncretism” to discuss both the philosophical connotations of his poetry and the influence of his ideas on literary creation. Zuo Hongtao’s paper, “Remarks on Qiu Chuji’s Works Concerning Confucius, Buddhism and Taoism—Discussion with Mr Liu Cunren from Australia” (Zuo 2004), briefly examined some of Qiu Chuji’s poems that blended Confucianism with Daoism and Buddhism with Daoism.

1.2. The Research Objects

The aforementioned research studies were thorough, and their conclusions were reliable, representing significant research achievements in the field of philosophy and literature. However, these research articles did not fully present the “Three Teachings Syncretism” directly from the poetry itself, and some of them focused only on specific poets as research subjects. Therefore, this article intends to present and analyze the Song and Jin poems that address the concept of the “Three Teachings Syncretism” directly. By isolating relevant poems and exploring the literary, historical, and philosophical backgrounds behind this phenomenon, we try to comprehend the specific perceptions of Song and Jin poets regarding this ideology and reveal its contemporary value and significance.

To achieve the purpose of this research, it was necessary to collect Song and Jin poems that express the concept of “Three Teachings Syncretism”. Since many related poems are scattered across the collected works of different poets, for the convenience of our research, we chose Complete Song Poetry (全宋詩) (CACCAPU 1998)⁴ and Complete Liao Jin Poetry (全遼金詩) (Yan and Kang 1999) as sources for collecting relevant poems. These two books include almost all poems from the Song, Liao, and Jin Dynasties. We searched these two books using “Three Teachings” (sanjiao 三教), “Confucianism” (ru 儒), “Buddhism” (fo 佛 and shi 釋), and ”Daoism” (dao 道) as both keywords and subjects, and all the selected poems are listed in Table 1.

By analyzing the contents of the above poems in detail, the historical presentation of the “Three Teachings Syncretism” in these poems is discussed in the following text.

2. Classification and Presentation of the Thought of “Three Teachings Syncretism” in Song and Jin Poetry

2.1. The Presentation of the Viewpoints on “Three Teachings Share the Same Origin” (三教同源) and “Three Teachings Return to Oneness” (三教歸一)

“Three Teachings Syncretism” is a collection of ideas, which can be further subdivided into a series of viewpoints, such as “Three teachings share the same origin”, “Three teachings return to oneness”, and so on. These subdivided ideas all appear in Song and Jin poetry, as discussed below.

The concept of “Three teachings share the same origin” was from Xiao Yan (蕭衍), the Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty (梁武帝). His “Poems on the Three Teachings” (會三教詩) was a comprehensive summary of the relationship between Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism.⁵ In this poem, he wrote: “In tracing the origin, there are no two sages; in measuring virtue, there are no more than the three heroes (窮源無二聖，測善非三英)” (Sengyou and Daoxuan 1991, p. 365). In the Song and Jin Dynasties, this concept was also expressed in poetry. For example, Huang Chang (黃裳), a scholar–official in the Northern Song Dynasty, expressed this in his poem as outlined below:

“The gāthā of Transmission between the Six Patriarch, Second Patriarch, No. 4”

Thoroughly delving into origins of the Zhuangzi (莊子) and the Zhouyi (周易),

the Three Teachings have always shared the same fundamental root.

《六祖傳付偈頌 二祖 其四》

曾窮莊易到源淵，

三教從來共本根。

(DCLLPU 2005)

Huang Chang, with the courtesy name Mianzhong (冕仲) and the art name Yanshan (演山), was born in Fujian. In the fifth year of the Yuanfeng (元豐) reign (1082), he passed the imperial examination and was elevated to the position of Academician in the Duanming Pavilion (Duanmingdian Xueshi 端明殿學士). His poems and articles were collected in the Yanshan Collection (演山集). Huang Chang’s philosophy was influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, and he cultivated many friendships with monks and Daoist priests. In his late years, he was particularly fascinated by Daoist alchemy. This poem evaluates the familiarity of Huike (慧可), the Second Patriarch of Chan Buddhism, with Zhuangzi and Confucian classics, as well as his profound understanding of Buddhism. It also explains that Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism share a common foundation.

Another example is provided in the poems of Wang Chongyang (王重陽) and Qiu Chuji (丘處機), two Daoist priests of Quanzhen Daoism in the Jin Dynasty, as outlined below:

“Master Sun Asks About the Three Teachings”, Wang Chongyang

The Confucian door and the Buddhist gate led to the same way,

the three teachings have always shared a common demeanor of the ancestors.

《孫公問三教》王重陽

儒門釋户道相通，

三教從來一祖風。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 281)

“Master Shilu had a place for rest, named ‘Middle Room’. He then asked for a poem” Qiu Chuji

Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism trace back to their ancestors,

a thousand sages from ancient to the present are the same.

《師魯先生有宴息之所，榜曰中室，又從而索詩》丘處機

儒釋道源三教祖，

由來千聖古今同。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 978)

From its establishment, Quanzhen Daoism was renowned for advocating for the integration of the three teachings. The Quanzhen Daoists left behind many poems discussing the relationship between the three teachings. These poems are often characterized by their concise language, which is easy to understand. The above-mentioned poems clearly illustrate the viewpoint of “Three teachings share the same origin”.

In addition, Zhiyu (智愚), a monk during the Southern Song Dynasty, also expressed the following:

“Praise for Huishan Dashi”

All schools share the same source, the three teachings speak with one tongue.

《善慧大士贊》

萬派同源，三教一舌。

(DCLLPU 2005)

Zhiyu, with the art name Xutang (虚堂), was a poet–monk who was skilled at writing odes and gāthā. This poem was written to praise Shanhui Dashi (善慧大士), a Buddhist monk in the Liang (梁) Dynasty. Using the tongue as a metaphor, Zhiyu vividly demonstrated the concept of “Three teachings share the same origin” in the poem.⁶

It can be seen from the above poems that this concept was accepted by these poets. Confucian scholars, Daoist priests, and Buddhist monks alike embodied this idea in their poetry creation.

Regarding the concept of “Three teachings return to oneness”, Zhang Boduan (张伯端), a Daoist priest during the early Northern Song Dynasty, pointed out that “Although the teachings are divided into three, the way ultimately leads to one (教虽分三，道乃归一)” (Zhang 2004, p. 295). In light of Zhang Boduan’s influence, this view was also reflected in the poems of other Jin Daoists, such as Liu Chuxuan (劉處玄) and Hou Shanyuan (侯善淵), as outlined below:

“Thirteen Poems Expressing Respect and Devotion to the Practitioners of the Three Teachings”, Liu Chuxuan.

The three teachings return to oneness, no distinction between Daoism and Chan.

《上敬奉三教道众并述怀十三首》 劉處玄

三教歸一，弗論道禪。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 944)

“Enlightened Evolution”, Hou Shanyuan.

The three teachings converge into one essence,

and all principles are ultimately the same.

《開明演化》 侯善淵

三教歸一體，

萬法悉皆同。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 1565)

Hou Shanyuan also gave a further explanation of “Three teachings return to oneness” in the following poem:

“Old Immortal Liu Asks About the Three Teachings Return to Oneness”

The Tathāgata’s subtle teachings speak of true nature.

The Supreme Principle reveal the Great Elixir.

Confucius explained the Five Constants for daily use.

The three teachings merge into one in the vast void.

Laozi, Tathāgata, and Confucius are alike,

Yet the people of the world are unaware, just engage in strife.

How can the three teachings be distinct under different names?

In the end, they all return to the same boundless emptiness.

《劉老仙問三教歸一》

如來妙法談真性，太上玄機説太丹。

孔子五常明日用，三乘混一太虛間。

老子如來孔聖同，世人不曉鬥争風。

假名三教云何異，總返蒼蒼一太空。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 1546)

From this poem, it can be seen that each of the three teachings has its own use, but that there is no difference in their core principles. This view was also held by some scholar–officials and monks, as shown in their poems. For instance, Wen Yanbo (文彦博) expressed the following: “Do not differentiate Confucius and Laozi as separate teachings; the aim is to smelt the bottles and plates into one piece of metal (不分孔老爲三教，欲使瓶盤作一金)” (DCLLPU 2005). Wang Lixin (汪立信) wrote the following in his poem: “Realizing that the three teachings are never different in their principle, yet once entering the depths of the mountains, no call can bring them back (元知三教本無異，走入千山喚不回)” (DCLLPU 2005). Huikai’s (慧開) gāthā stated that “The sages of the Three Teachings ultimately return to the same principle (三教聖人，同歸一理)” (DCLLPU 2005). From the above text, it can be seen that the idea of the “Three Teachings Return to Oneness” was widely discussed by Confucian officials, Buddhist monks, and Daoist priests in their poems.

Furthermore, with the development of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism in the Song and Jin Dynasties, the Three teachings formed a tripartite situation. Some poets borrowed the concept of the “Three Talents” (sancai 三才)⁷ to compare the tripartite coexistence of the three teachings in their poems, as outlined below:

“Sent as Thanks to Master Zhang of Biyun”, Cheng Gongxu

Confucianism, Buddhism, and Laozi stand firmly like the Three Talents;

all forms and numbers are shaped by their own designs.

《寄謝碧雲張高士》 程公許

儒釋老氏鼎立如三才，

凡囿形數由剸裁。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Two Poems for Fellow Daoist Friends”, Wang Chuyi

Heaven, earth, and humanity are in harmony;

the three teachings are essentially the same as the Three Talents.

《赠众道友二首》 王處一

天和地理與人安，

三教三才共一般。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 1546)

Additionally, Emperor Taizu’s poem “A great elucidation takes effortless action, but the three teachings flourish; following the peaceful ways brings tolerance to the Four Barbarians (大闡無爲三教盛，承平方說四夷寬)” (DCLLPU 2005) and Wang Chuyi’s poem “The three teachings rise together, supported by many causes; In true emptiness, there are no words, only laughter echoes (三教同興仗衆緣，真空無語笑聲連)” (Yan and Kang 1999, p. 830) also depicted the flourishing of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, which serve not only as literary expressions but also as historical records.

In Summary, the concepts of “Three Teachings Share the Same Origin” and “Three Teachings Return to Oneness” were widely recognized and accepted by people from various backgrounds. These ideologies are also reflected in their poetic creation.

2.2. Presentation of the Concept of “Three Teachings in One Family” (三教一家)

The “Three Teachings in One Family” is another way to present the idea of “Three Teachings Syncretism”. In our collection of relevant poems, this concept mainly appeared in the poems of Quanzhen Daoists. In its infancy, Quanzhen Daoism needed to maintain a good relationship with Confucianism and Buddhism, and, thus, this viewpoint often appeared in the poetry of Quanzhen Daoists. For instance, it was expressed by Wang Chongyang in his poems, as below:

“Daoist Yongxue, No. 1”

Unable to comprehend Confucianism and being afraid of Confucian scholars;

failing to understand the way of Buddhism, but despising the Buddhist monks.

《永學道人·其一》

難曉儒門空怯士，

不通釋路却嫌僧。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 288)

“Daoist Yongxue, No. 2”

With a sincere heart, do not give rise to deviance;

seek to unite the three teachings as one family.

《永學道人·其二》

心中端正莫生邪，

三教搜來做一家。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 288)

In the first poem, Wang Chongyang pointed out that some Daoist disciples could not understand the Confucian classics and Buddhist principles in detail; thus, they held biased attitudes towards scholars and monks. In the second poem, he warned that Daoist disciples not only needed to have a correct mindset in cultivation but also to integrate the principles of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism into one. In addition, Tan Chuduan (谭处端), one of the Seven Masters of Quanzhen Daoism (全真七子), gave a further elucidation of “Three Teachings in One Family” in his poem, as outlined below:

“Three Teachings”

The three teachings have always been one family;

Dao and Chan are equally pure and tranquil.

Confucius’s teachings encompass profound principles;

Those who understand them can stride across the rosy clouds.

《三教》

三教由來總一家，

道禪清静不相差。

仲尼百行通幽理，

悟者人人跨彩霞。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 516)

This poem pointed out that there was little difference between Daoism and Buddhism in meditation and that Confucianism was also capable of understanding the profound principles of the universe. Anyone who could grasp the true essence might transcend mortals.

From the poems of Wang Chongyang and Tan Chuduan, it can be seen that Quanzhen Daoism upheld the concept of “Three Teachings in One Family”, and advocated for the equal treatment of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. Under such an ideological influence, the poems of Quanzhen Daoists also displayed a friendly and positive attitude towards Confucianism and Buddhism. For example, Ma Yu’s poem stated the following:

“Respecting the Three Teachings”

Treat the Confucian scholars not as commoners;

respect the monks who possess exceptional nature.

《敬三教》

待士非凡俗，

崇僧性不凡。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 474)

“Verses on Attesting to Cultivation”

Immortals and Buddhas converge as one;

Dao and virtue find balance in both.

《證修吟》

仙佛歸一趣，

道德在兩全。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 480)

It should be noted that “Three Teachings in One Family” was introduced during the infancy of Quanzhen Daoism. With its development, Qiu Chuji, Liu Chuxuan, and others strengthened their identities as Daoists, and their attitudes towards the three teachings changed significantly.⁸ This ideological shift was also reflected in their poetry. For instance, Qiu Chuji’s poems on the “three teachings” were fewer in number, compared to those of Wang Chongyang. This shift is even more evident in the following poem by Liu Chuxuan:

“Odes of Five-Character Jueju”

The three teachings have no distinctions;

cultivating truth is the first and foremost.

《五言絕句頌》

三教無分别，

修真第一功。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 963)

Although this poem expressed the viewpoint that the three teachings were indistinguishable, the line “cultivating truth is the first and foremost” subtly reflected Liu Chuxuan’s stronger identification with his Daoist identity. Unlike Wang Chongyang, Ma Yu, and Tan Chuduan, Liu Chuxuan’s attitude towards Confucianism and Buddhism had changed quietly. Therefore, we can glimpse this ideological transformation of the Quanzhen Daoists from their poetic works.

2.3. The Presentation of Ideological Integration and Character Evaluation During the Intercommunication of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism

Confucian scholars, Buddhist monks, and Daoist priests during the Song and Jin Dynasties usually communicated with each other through poems. This type of poetry was also called Changhe poetry (唱和詩). Some of the Changhe poems depicted the specific idea of the integration of three teachings, as outlined below:

“Inscription Left as a Gift for Daoist Liu of Taiping”, Wang Yang;

Discuss the profound principles from Laozi and Zhuangzi;

Confucianism and Buddhism are both outstanding, without distinction.

《留贈太平劉道士》 王洋

獨與老荘談妙理，

不分儒釋是殊倫。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Three Poems in Response to the Daoist Chen Tianyin No.1”, Xie Bingde

Knowing well that Confucianism and Daoism stem from the same source,

yet unresolved causes prevent true freedom.

《和道士陳天隠三首 其一》 謝枋得

明知儒道本同流，

未了因緣不自由。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Farewell to Elder Lian”, Hu Hong

Although Confucianism and Daoism are different schools,

their intentions are not fundamentally different.

《送璉老》 胡宏

儒道雖異門，

意合不為殊。

“Response to Master Zhan’s Question on Prior Buddhism and Later Daoism”, Wang Chongyang

Buddhism and Daoism have always been one family;

their forms and appearances show no difference in principle.

《答戰公問先釋後道》 王重陽

釋道從來是一家，

兩般形貌理無差。

(Yan and Kang 1999, p. 276)

“A Poem to Master Quan and His Brother, Scholar Gao Zhixu”, Daoqian

Two outstanding branches rise from one family;

Being distinct in form, the way of Confucianism and Buddhism is the same.

《贈權上人兼簡其兄高致虛秀才》 道潜

翹然雙幹秀一門，

儒釋殊科道無異。

(DCLLPU 2005)

From these Changhe poems, it is evident that there were close connections and interactions between Confucian scholars, Buddhist monks, and Daoist priests. Meanwhile, these poems also reflect their recognition and affirmation of the shared principles across Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism.

Buddhism had a profound impact on the thoughts of some scholars during the Song Dynasty. Therefore, in their poems, there was ample reflection and discussion on both Confucianism and Buddhism. This stemmed from their daily lives and reading, as in the following examples:

“Huang Kan”, Lin Tong

Confucianism and Buddhism fundamentally share the same path;

Their classics show no significant differences.

Although the Universal Gate of Buddhism remains unanswered,

it is better than the dwelling of Confucius.

《皇侃》 林同

儒釋本同途，

遺經非爾殊。

未應普門品，

勝似仲尼居。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Six Poems in Response to the Rhyme on Springtime Observations, No. 5”, Hong Hao

Confucians and Buddhists have once formed associations;

There is no hindrance for them to gather together in a small hall.

《次韻春日即事六首 其五》 洪皓

儒釋自來曾結社，

不妨俱隱小堂中。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Feelings”, Zheng Qingzhi

Zisi sought learning through sincerity,

while Mencius’ practice focused on self-reflection.

Where could the subtle wisdom of Buddhism be found?

Both Confucianism and Buddhism shared the same natural truth.

《有感》 鄭清之

子思問學惟誠意，

孟氏工夫只反身。

定慧妙明何處覓，

要知儒釋共天真。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Casual Writing”, Zhou Hao

In the morning, read a volume of scripture; in the evening, read another book.

One volume follows the next, encompassing the Tripitaka and five cartloads of books.

Confucianism and Buddhism are essentially the same, but the ignorant create division.

The ignorant are not worth discussing; what should the enlightened ones do?

《偶書》 鄒浩

朝讀一卷經，暮讀一卷書。

一卷復一卷，三藏與五車。

儒釋本不異，昧者自親疏。

昧者不足道，明者當何如。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Twenty Miscellaneous Poems”, No. 10, Tang Geng

To pursue knowledge, I embrace both Confucian and Buddhist teachings;

among my friends, half are scholars and the other half are farmers.

《雜詩二十首 其一○》 唐庚

問學兼儒釋，

交游半士農。

(DCLLPU 2005)

From these poems, it can be seen that Buddhist thought had a profound influence on the daily thoughts and lives of Confucian scholars. The poems of Lin Tong, Hong Hao and Zheng Qingzhi expressed their ideology on the integration of Confucianism and Buddhism. Zou Hao’s poem reflected his understanding of the convergence of Confucian and Buddhist thoughts, as he engaged with both Confucian Classics and Buddhist Scriptures, while Tang Geng’s poem reflected how his knowledge drew from both Confucianism and Buddhism.

In addition, the ability to harmonize the Three Teachings also became a standard for evaluating a person’s character, which can also be observed in their poems, as outlined below:

“Inscription on the Hall of the Perfect Unity of the Three Teachings”, Zu Wuze

The master is a disciple of the Buddha,

yet delves into the teachings of Laozi and Confucius.

What is reflected in one hall?

The three teachings, existing together.

《題三教圓通堂》 祖無擇

師本佛之徒，

潛心老與儒。

一堂何所像，

三教此焉俱。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“An Inscription Left as a Gift for Chan Master Jian at Lingyan”, Zhang Huizong

Someday, you will break free from the bonds of fame and fortune;

let your nature connect with the three teachings and knock on the door of Chan.

《留題贈靈巖鑒公禪師》 張會宗

早晚利荣缰锁脱，

性通三教叩禅关。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Responding in Rhyme to a Poem Sent by the Abbot Zhigong of Donggao Temple”, Chen Zhu

Reciting the essence of the three teachings a hundred times;

a single meal nourishes the hearts of all directions.

《次韻東皋寺主僧知恭見寄》 陳著

百吟三教髓，

一飯十方心。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Responding to the Rhyme Gifted by Deputy Minister Li”, Bai Yuchan

Living in a jade hall by the edge of sea and mountain,

holding within a trove of texts from the Three Teachings

《次李侍郎見贈韻》 白玉蟾

家居瓊館海山隅，

腹內包藏三教書。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Responding to the Imperial Decree After Reading the Book of Hou Zhou”, No. 2, Xia Song

Extensive knowledge enabled them to verse the ideas of the three teachings;

Their clear reputation stood out during that time.

《奉和御制读后周书》 其二 夏竦

奧識通三教，

清聲冠一時。

(DCLLPU 2005)

In these poems, poets often praised and affirmed one’s ability to understand the theory of the three teachings in detail. Both Buddhists and Daoists acknowledged this criterion of character evaluation and reflected it in their poetry. For instance, Wang Chongyang’s poem stated that “To fully embrace both Chan and Dao is to be a superior priest; to attain either Chan or Dao is to be a true monk (禪道兩全為上士，道禪一得自真僧)” (Yan and Kang 1999, p. 283). This indicated that a Daoist who had cultivated and achieved the Buddhist way, as well as a monk who was well-versed in the Daoist teachings, were both outstanding figures. Moreover, Zhiyu used a similar expression, as follows: “The one who integrated the three teachings, the master of the Buddha dharma (是爲三教融通，大法之宗主者也)” (DCLLPU 2005). This indicated that being able to integrate the Three Teachings was a reason for high praise among Buddhists and Daoists.

2.4. The Presentation of the Link Between Buddhism and Mohism

The above text presented and analyzed the syncretism of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism in Song-Jin poetry. However, during our study of the content of the poetry, we also discovered a few poems that connect Buddhism with Mohism, one of ancient Chinese philosophy. For instance, Zhiyuan (智圓) and Fang Hui (方回) expressed this link in their poems as follow:

“The Poems on Han and Liu”, Zhiyuan

Tuizhi (Han Yu) expelled Buddhism, Zihou (Liu Zongyuan) was exceptionally virtuous.

Han and Liu shared the same ideology; how could preferences lead to division?

One criticized while the other praised, both allowing Confucianism to flourish.

Liuzhou (Liu Zongyuan) made a monument for the Caoxi Liuzu, in which he wrote Buddhism returned the purity of Confucianism.

Libu (Han Yu) read Mozi, asserting that Mozi was akin to Confucianism.

I knew that Mozi advocated universal love; why was Buddhism regarded as a distant stranger?

To accept Mozi is to accept Buddhism, as clear as the vast sky.

Going and staying are indeed different, yet their essence has always been the same.

The younger generation studies Han’s writings while disparaging Buddhism.

They do not comprehend Han’s teachings but first learn to scold like him.

Forgetting the root to pursue for the branches, wasting the mind from past to present.

《述韓柳詩》 智圓

退之排釋氏，子厚多能仁。

韓柳既道同，好惡安得倫。

一斥一以贊，俱令儒道伸。

柳州碑曹溪，言釋還儒淳。

吏部讀墨子，謂墨與儒鄰。

吾知墨兼愛，此釋何疏親。

許墨則許釋，明若仰穹旻。

去就亦已異，其旨由來均。

後生學韓文，於釋長狺狺。

未知韓子道，先學韓子嗔。

忘本以競末，今古空勞神。

(DCLLPU 2005)

“Ten Poems on Learning Poetry No. 5”, Fang Hui

Yang Zhu’s philosophy was centered on self-interest; Laozi’s ideas bore a resemblance to Yang’s.

Mozi promoted universal love, and Shakyamuni shared a similar perspective.

Mencius refuted Yang and Mo, achieving merit in his time.

Their thoughts seemed benevolent and righteous, passed down in darkness, without light.

The Sanskrit texts were translated in the Eastern Han, while the mystical teachings spread in the Western Jin.

This had harmed generations, yet the three teachings continued to thrive.

Only the honorable Han Wengong (Han Yu) raised my righteous banner.

In Lianxi and Luoyang, there were revered elders, while one flourished and the other declined.

《學詩吟十首 其五》 方回

楊氏昔爲我，老子實似之。

墨氏昔兼愛，釋迦亦如之。

孟子闢楊墨，有功此一時。

似仁與似義，暗傳匪明垂。

梵語東漢譯，玄門西晉師。

迄爲萬世害，三教乃並馳。

獨一韓文公，張我正正旗。

濂洛有諸老，此盛彼遂衰。

(DCLLPU 2005)

The poems of Zhiyuan and Fang Hui demonstrate opposite viewpoints. Zhiyuan used the line “Libu (Han Yu) read Mozi, claiming Mozi was a neighbor to Confucianism. I know that Mozi advocated universal love; why was Buddhism regarded as a distant stranger?” to link Mohism and Buddhism. He expressed his opinion on the anti-Buddhist views of Han Yu in the poem. Zhiyuan also satirized the Confucian apprentices who did not learn their knowledge from Han Yu, but instead adopted his reproachful language to launch attacks on Buddhism with great hostility.

On the contrary, from a perspective of Confucian-exclusive reverence, Fang Hui extolled the actions of Mencius and Han Yu in their refutations of Yangzi, Mohism, Buddhism, and Daoism. However, from the line “Mozi promoted universal love, while Shakyamuni was similar to him”, it can be seen that Fang Hui believed there were similarities between Mohism and Buddhism.

Therefore, from these two poems, we can see that, in addition to the interconnection among the three teachings, there are also instances in Song poetry where Buddhism, a foreign religion, is linked with other local Chinese ideologies, such as Mohism. Moreover, although Zhiyuan and Fang Hui lived in different eras, their poems resemble a debate transcending time and space, showcasing the collisions between and blending of different thoughts. However, both Zhiyuan and Fang Hui linked the universal love of Mohism with Buddhism.

3. Exploring the Reasons Behind the Phenomenon from the Perspectives of Literature, Philosophy, and History

The above contents present an outlook and discussion on the concept of “Three Teachings Syncretism” in Song and Jin poetry, leading to the next issue that needs to be discussed. What are the literary theories, philosophical ideas, and historical facts underlying the formation of this phenomenon? They are all fundamental ways in which the phenomenon was shaped.

3.1. Evolution of Poetry as a Literary Form

From a broad perspective, the expression of “Three Teachings Syncretism” in poetry is essentially an exploration of the interrelationship among Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. As a carrier to convey these ideological expressions, poetry is first and foremost worthy of our attention as a literary form. Throughout history, ancient Chinese poetry always excelled at expressing human emotions. In particular, Tang poetry was renowned for its extremely rich emotions and highly compelling language, and can be considered the pinnacle of ancient Chinese poetry.⁹ However, intellectualization was also another important dimension in the development of Chinese poetry, making the poetry more scholarly by incorporating academic or philosophical elements. This made it possible for poetry to be used as a literary form to embrace the concept of “Three Teachings Syncretism”.

From the pre-Qin period (before 221BC), the Shijing, the oldest collection of Chinese poetry, was rich in content, reflecting numerous themes, such as customs, war, labor, and even landscapes, animals, and plants. It marked the beginning of the intellectualization of classical poetry, which was then incorporated into the creation of Chinese poetry from a very early stage and developed across different dynasties in China.¹⁰

The intellectualization of poetry reached its zenith in the Song Dynasty. With Tang poets having already taken the emotional form of poetry to its extreme, Song poets engaged in further intellectual innovation in their poetry. They employed a vast array of classical allusions and knowledge from Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism in their poems to explore certain philosophical propositions. Yan Yu (嚴羽), a poetry critic in the Southern Song Dynasty, held a critical and opposing attitude towards the intellectualization of poetry. Nevertheless, he had to admit that Song poetry was written “using philology as poetry, using talent and knowledge as poetry, and using commentary as poetry (以文字為詩，以才學為詩，以議論為詩)” (Yan 1983, p. 26); this became the essential summary of the characteristics of Song poetry. Additionally, the spread of Ci (詞, lyrics), the Classical Prose Movement (古文運動), and the development of Neo-Confucianism (理學) deeply affected the intellectualization of poetry in the Song Dynasty.

Ci, a new form of poetry which was widespread in the Song Dynasty, partially replaced traditional poetry as a means of expressing emotions. Ci emerged during the Tang Dynasty but reached its peak in the Song Dynasty.¹¹ Compared to traditional poetry, which had a fixed number of characters in each line, Ci varied in the length of its lines, making it more suitable for expressing the nuances of emotion. Therefore, in the Song Dynasty, Ci was more frequently used to express emotions, while traditional poetry was usually used for reasoning, which further paved the way for the intellectualization of poetry.

The Classical Prose Movement also laid a foundation for the intellectualization of Song poetry. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, leaders of the Classical Prose Movement in the Tang Dynasty, advocated “To Illuminate Dao with Wen (文以明道)” in order to promote the restoration of the Confucian orthodoxy (道統), encouraging literary writing based on social reality. Although the Song Dynasty was prosperous in terms of the economy and culture, it faced numerous crises in the political and military spheres. Contemplating solutions for these social problems became a major task for the Song scholar–officials. Ouyang Xiu (歐陽修), Wang Anshi (王安石), Su Zhe (蘇轍), Su Shi (蘇軾)¹², and others admired the works of Han and Liu, continuing the spirit of the Classical Prose Movement and advocating for literature to reflect and respond to the realities of the era. In these cases, poems were used by these scholar–officials to discuss practical problems or philosophical issues, promoting the intellectualization of poetry.

Neo-Confucianism, a new ideology that emerged during the Song Dynasty, was the philosophical support for Song poetry, enabling it to reach new heights in the process of intellectualization. Neo-Confucian scholars sought to integrate the ideologies of Buddhism and Daoism to inject new vitality into Confucianism, providing a new philosophy paradigm and personal cultivation mode. Therefore, typical Neo-Confucian scholars considered literary writing as a tool for education. In the Northern Song Dynasty, Zhou Dunyi (周敦頤) proposed the idea of “To Convey Dao with Wen” (文以载道), treating literature as the means for conveying the Dao. Cheng Yi (程頤) even thought that “Writing Harms the Dao” (作文害道).¹³ In the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi (朱熹) still regarded literature as a derivative of the Dao. Only a few atypical Neo-Confucian scholars, such as Lv Zuqian (吕祖谦), maintained a positive view about the importance of literature. A lot of Neo-Confucian scholars had an exclusionary or contradictory attitude towards literary creation (P. Wang 2012, pp. 153–70). Nevertheless, in their own literary endeavors, they created a large number of poems, discussing philosophical reflections on the world and life and exploring academic issues in their poetry. Neo-Confucianism profoundly influenced the thinking and behavior of poets in the Song Dynasty through its dialectical and rationalist approaches, ultimately permeating into their poetic composition. Thus, many Song poets employed poetic language to explore various social issues and philosophical ideas, including the discussion about the philosophical thought of “Three Teachings Syncretism”.

3.2. The Confucian Academic Background of Buddhist and Daoist Disciples

From the perspective of the academic backgrounds of Buddhists and Daoists in the Song and Jin Dynasties, many of them had the experience of studying Confucian classics in their early years and turned to Buddhism or Taoism later. This meant that they possessed a high level of cultural cultivation and academic ability, thereby enabling them to forge the doctrines of the Three Teachings, becoming more similar to the Confucian scholars. The early experiences of Zhiyuan, Chen Tuan, and Wang Chongyang are typical examples, as outlined below.

With the development of Wenzi Chan (文字禪),¹⁴ the artistic and literary attainments of Buddhist monks continuously improved, resulting in a considerable number of poet–monks. Many of them had a Confucian background and were dedicated to the integration of Confucianism and Buddhism. Among them, Zhiyuan was particularly representative.

Zhiyuan, with the courtesy name Wuwai (無外) and the art name Zhongyongzi (中庸子), was a famous monk of Tiantai Buddhism (天台宗). Although he was a Buddhist, he had a deep understanding of Confucianism and was deeply influenced by the Classical Prose Movement. This was closely related to his early experience of studying Confucianism. He wrote the following in his autobiography:

At the age of fifteen, I had a rudimentary understanding of the Li Sao (離騷) and Shi Jing (詩經). I was interested in writing Lüshi of Tang. At the age of twenty-one, I intended to study the works by Duke of Zhou and Confucius, embracing their teachings and learning to write literary articles in order to educate the people in the world. However, when I was sick and bedridden one time, I blamed myself: “You are a Buddhist. Your hair has been cut, and your body has been ruined. You have not studied the teachings of Buddhism, but have admired Confucianism, forgetting your roots and principles. How can you claim to understand the essences from Duke of Zhou and Confucius? You should study Buddhism first and then learn Confucianism as a supplement.”

十五微知騷雅，好為唐律詩。二十一，將從師受周孔書，宗其道，學為文以訓世。會寢疾，因自訟曰：汝浮圖子，髮既祝矣，形且毀矣，而不習釋氏志，慕儒學忘本背義，又豈稱周孔之旨乎，汝姑習釋後學儒為副。

(X0949 n.d., p. 894c9-13)¹⁵

Based on such early experiences, he revered Confucianism and enjoyed poetry and literature. In the preface to his collected works, he mentioned his academic interest in Confucianism in addition to Buddhist scriptures, as outlined below:

Apart from studying Buddhist scriptures, I enjoy reading the books of Duke of Zhou, Confucius, Yangzi, and Mencius. I often study ancient texts to embrace their teachings. I also love to compose five- and seven-character poems to delight my nature.

于讲佛经外，好读周、孔、杨、孟书，往往学古文，以宗其道，又爱吟五七言诗，以乐其性情。

(X0949 n.d., p. 865b23-c1)

In philosophical thought, he dedicated himself to the integration of the doctrines of Confucianism and Buddhism. In his literary pursuits, he actively participated in the Classical Prose Movement. Although he opposed Han Yu’s anti-Buddhist attitude, he agreed with the Confucian orthodoxy (道统) constructed by Han Yu. The modern historian Chen Yinke (陳寅恪) commented on this as follows:

Zhiyuan of the Northern Song Dynasty advocated the Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong 中庸). Even though he was Buddhist, he still used Zhongyongzi (中庸子) as his art name, and wrote his own biography to elaborate on its meaning (Gushan Xianjubian). Its era was before Sima Junshi’s writing on Zhongyong Guangyi (中庸廣義). It seemed that he was an early advocator among the Neo-Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty.¹⁶

北宋之智圓提倡中庸，甚至以僧徒而號中庸子，並自為傳以述其義（孤山《閒居編》）。其年代猶在司馬君實作《中庸廣義》之前，似于宋代新儒家為先覺。

(Y. Chen 2001, p. 284)

In addition, the phenomenon of shifting from Confucianism to other religions was not limited to Buddhism. Many famous Daoist priests during the Song and Jin Dynasties, such as the renowned Daoists Chen Tuan (陳摶) of the early Northern Song Dynasty and Wang Chongyang of the Jin Dynasty, also had backgrounds in Confucian studies in their early years. Chen Tuan’s study of Confucian classics in his early year was documented as follows:

Chen Tuan, with the courtesy name Tunan, was born in Zhenyuan, Bozhou. At the age of four or five, he was nursed by an old woman when he played near the bank of the Wo River, after which his intelligence rapidly improved. As he grew up, he read numerous works, including classics and history, and could recite them without forgetting after a single reading. He was quite famous for his poetry. During the Changxing era of the Later Tang Dynasty, he took the imperial examination, but failed to pass it. After that, he abandoned the pursuit of official positions, instead enjoyed the scenery of mountains and rivers.

陳摶，字圖南，亳州真源人。始四五歲，戲渦水岸側，有青衣媼乳之，自是聰悟日益。及長，讀經史百家之言，一見成誦，悉無遺忘，頗以詩名。後唐長興中，舉進士不第，遂不求祿仕，以山水為樂。

(Tuotuo and Alutu 1977, vol. 457, p. 13420)

As for Wang Chongyang′s study of Confucianism, it can be seen in the following records:

At the age of twenty, he studied for the imperial examination and was enrolled in the Jingzhao Prefecture School, where he also demonstrated skill in military strategy.

弱冠，修進士舉業，籍京兆府學，又善武略。

(Liu and Wang 1998, p. 84)

Take a look at Master Chongyang of Mount Zhongnan. He started out as a Confucian disciple and eventually attained the Daoism. Whenever he met someone for the first time, he would first let him read Xiaojing (《孝經》) and Dao De Jing (《道德經》), and then teach him to be filial, respectful, and pure. When he established his theories, he often cited the Six Classics as evidence.

今觀終南山重陽祖師，始于業儒，其卒成道，凡接人初機，必先使讀《孝經》《道德經》，又教之以孝謹純一，及其立說，多引六經為證據。

(Liu and Wang 1998, pp. 90–91)

From the above review of the experiences of famous monks and Daoist priests, it can be seen that they were not only familiar with the doctrines of Buddhism and Daoism, but also well-versed in the Confucian classics, showing a distinct tendency to be Confucian scholar–officials. This academic background supported their discussion of the three teachings in their poems.

4. The Historical Value and Modern Significance of “Three Teachings Syncretism” Presented in Song and Jin Poetry

The above text organizes the presentation of the “Three Teachings Syncretism” in Song and Jin poetry, addressing its literary theories, philosophical concepts, and the historical and cultural backgrounds behind this phenomenon. The deep theoretical integration of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism during the Song and Jin Dynasties also influenced the creation of poetry. The intellectualization of poetry reached its peak in the Song Dynasty, becoming an effective medium for conveying philosophical thoughts. These poems are not only literary works but also disseminations of the corresponding philosophical ideas, thereby becoming important historical materials. All of these embody significant historical value.

From today’s perspective, the presentation of “Three Teachings Syncretism” in Song and Jin poetry is also an effective expression of the diversity, inclusiveness, and harmony of Chinese culture.¹⁷

Diversity. As presented in the poetry, diversity did not only encompass the three major teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, but also involved lesser-known schools such as Yangzi and Mohism, showcasing the rich and diverse philosophical thoughts of Chinese culture from ancient times to the present. These thoughts formed the rich inner world of the Chinese people and shaped their perception of the external world.

Inclusiveness. The presentation of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism in Song and Jin poetry displayed the outstanding quality of the three teachings in learning from each other and absorbing each other’s thoughts. They not only maintained their own uniqueness, but also complemented each other. These characteristics effectively promoted the integration, dissemination, and development of these philosophical thoughts. The poetry also showed that Confucian scholars, Buddhist monks, and Daoist priests all advocated for the integration of the three teachings and regarded it as a positive evaluation of a person’s broad knowledge, which reflected the strong inclusiveness of Chinese culture.

Harmony. The concept of “Three Teachings Syncretism” presented in Song and Jin poetry also demonstrated the harmonious coexistence of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. The emergence and development of this school of thought in ancient China also effectively avoided the occurrence of religious wars.¹⁸ Although the Song and Jin Dynasties experienced conflict in the military and political spheres, the presentation of this ideology in Song and Jin poetry showed that both dynasties shared a common pursuit of cultural identity. This also implies that Chinese culture has the characteristic of seeking harmony and unity.

In fact, the idea of the “Three Teachings Syncretism” embodied in the Song and Jin poetry continues to subtly influence the thoughts and lives of contemporary Chinese people. For instance, from a philosophical perspective, contemporary Chinese philosophy emphasizes cultural compatibility and multidimensional solutions when facing global issues such as environmental crises and social inequality. From the perspective of family and community ethics, Confucian family ethics still have a strong influence in contemporary China. However, the Daoist philosophy of naturalism and the Buddhist concept of causality complement this ethical framework, fostering greater tolerance and tranquility among people, while encouraging harmonious interpersonal relationships within families and communities. From the perspective of wellness and mental health, many people today integrate Confucian self-cultivation, Daoist health practices, and Buddhist meditation into their daily lives. Some relieve the pressures of modern life through yoga, meditation, and reading classical philosophical works. The Daoist principles of “tranquility and non-action” (清靜無為) and the Buddhist concept of “letting go of attachments” (放下執念) are often employed to address anxiety and depression. Moreover, contemporary China places great emphasis on traditional culture in school education. Classics from Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, such as the Analects (論語), Dao De Jing (道德經), and Diamond Sutra (金剛經), have been incorporated into the general education curriculum to help young people understand the unique values of Chinese culture.

In summary, the “Three Teachings Syncretism” is a treasure of Chinese thoughts, and classical poetry is also a cultural treasure of China. This concept did not only promote the development of Chinese literature but also expressed Chinese philosophical thought. In the face of the complex global situation today, the concept of “Three Teachings Syncretism” presented in the poetry of the Song and Jin Dynasties may offer Chinese wisdom applicable to many ethnic, religious, and belief-related disputes.

5. Conclusions

Building on the previous research studies on the concept of “Three Teachings Syncretism” in poetry, this paper categorized the specific ways in which the concept is presented in Song and Jin poetry. The relevant poems were divided into the following four categories: first, the presentation of the concept of “three teachings share the same origin” and “three teachings return to oneness”; second, the presentation of the concept of “three teachings in one family” in Quanzhen Daoism; third, the presentation of ideological integration and character evaluation in poetry; and fourth, the presentation of the linkage between Mohism and Buddhism. These show how Song and Jin poets utilized poetry to discuss religious philosophy. Next, the article explored the underlying reasons behind this historical phenomenon by combining the study of literature, philosophy, and history. On one hand, the intellectualization of poetry enabled these poems to serve as vessels for discussing philosophical ideologies. On the other hand, many monks and Daoist priests in the Song and Jin Dynasties had a Confucian academic background, which supported their discussion of the three teachings in their poems. Finally, the modern value and significance of the “Three Teachings Syncretism” were discussed. As one of the most important religious and philosophical concepts in ancient China, “Three Teachings Syncretism” demonstrates the diversity, inclusiveness, and harmony of Chinese culture, which may offer some assistance in resolving various religious conflicts today.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.L.; writing-original draft, X.H.; writing-review and editing, E.L. and X.H.; funding acquisition, E.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Notes

1. Based on Langlois and Sun (1983), the Chinese phrase sanjiao heyi 三教合一 is translated into “Three Teachings Syncretism” in this paper. It may have different translations such as “three teachings harmonious as one”, “combination of three religions”, and “union of the three religions”, under different conditions.

2. For an overview of the research works on the connotations and historical development of the “Three Teachings Syncretism”, please see Gentz (2011), Tang (2006), Tang and Zhou (2009), and Tang (2012).

3. In chapter six, Mou conducted an in-depth discussion on the integration of the Three Teachings from the Song to Ming Dynasty. For information on the related issues, the reader can also refer to Tang Dachao’s research works. See Tang (2006) and Tang and Zhou (2009). For an overview of the development of Chinese religion during the Song, Liao, and Jin Dynasties, see Chao (2012).

4. In this paper, the poems cited from Complete Song Poetry (CACCAPU 1998) are all from the Complete Song Poetry Analysis System (DCLLPU 2005), which was developed by the Department of Chinese Language and Literature of Peking University (DCLLPU) in 2005, aiming to help users retrieve and analyze poems from Complete Song Poetry.

5. Studies on Emperor Wu of Liang’s thoughts on the Three Teachings include Pan (1986) and Han (2014).

6. According to Jiangnan Li’s research, medieval Chinese Buddhists underwent a process of transition from rejecting to accepting the idea of “three teachings share the same origin”. During the Northern Song period, Buddhists conditionally accepted this idea, but still maintained the superiority of Buddhism. By the time of Emperor Xiaozong in the Southern Song Dynasty, Buddhists ultimately acknowledged that the Three Teachings share a common origin—a universal “Dao” that transcends the Three Teachings. See (J. Li 2023). Zhi Yu’s poem provided evidence for Buddhists’ acceptance of the idea of “Three teachings share the same origin”.

7. “Three talents” (sancai 三才) represents a concept in classical Chinese philosophy, which refers to heaven (天), earth (地), and humanity (人).

8. For research on the identity of the Quanzhen Daoists, especially on their attitude change toward Confucianism and Buddhism, see Zhao and Wei (2018).

9. The Tang dynasty witnessed the golden age of Chinese poetry. For the remarkable development of Tang poetry in emotions and language, see (Lin 2021). For the expression of lyricism in Tang poetry, see Sun (1991) and Ren (2019).

10. The intellectualization of classical Chinese poetry spanned from the pre-Qin period to the Qing Dynasty. See Wei (2012).

11. For the development and achievements of Song Ci, please see Owen (2019).

12. These scholars all have a background in Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. Taking the famous poet Su Shi and his brother Su Zhe as examples, the “Three Teachings Syncretism” had a deep influence on both their thoughts and poetry. See T. Li (2021) and Liu (2024).

13. For a specific discussion on Cheng Yi’s views about literature and Dao, see Bol (1992, pp. 300–42).

14. The emergence and development of “Wenzi Chan” was related to the Chan school’s linguistic views; see Fang (2002). Wenzi Chan had a significant influence on the theory of classic poetry criticism; see Xiao (2012).

15. Additional notes on (X0949 n.d.): These quotations are from Zhiyuan’s Xianjubian, which are cited from the Shinsan Zokuzōkyō (Xuzangjing) based on the corpus of the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Please refer to the following webpage: https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw. (accessed on 29 November 2024).

16. After Zhiyuan, Neo-Confucian scholars, such as Ouyang Xiu, Su Shi, and Zhu Xi in the Song Dynasty and Hao Jing during the Jin and Yuan Dynasties, held in-depth discussions on the connection between Zhongyong and the Confucian orthodox. See Soffel and Tillman (2012).

17. Diversity and harmony are universal ideals of Chinese civilization. See L. Chen (2015, pp. 69–74). The harmonization of the three teachings is also discussed by Joachim Gentz; see Gentz (2011).

18. Tang Yijie explored the reasons behind the lack of religious wars in China from the perspective of “Three teachings return to oneness”; see Tang (2012).

Footnotes

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Table

Table 1

Poems related to “Three Teachings Syncretism” from Complete Song Poetry and Complete Liao Jin Poetry.

Name of Poem	Name of Poet	Dynasty
Knowing Awareness, No. 21緣識 其二一	Emperor Taizong宋太宗	Song
Granted to Chen Tuan, No. 1賜陳摶 其一
The Gāthā of Transmission between the Six Patriarch, Second Patriarch, No. 4六祖傳付偈頌 二祖 其四	Huang Chang黄裳	Song
Five Odes of Renaming as Virtuous Scholars, No. 5改德士頌五首 其五	Rao Jie饒節	Song
Responding to the Imperial Decree After Reading the Book of Hou Zhou, No. 2奉和御製讀後周書 其二	Xia Song夏竦	Song
Inscription on the Hall of the Perfect Unity of the Three Teachings題三教圓通堂	Zu Wuze祖無擇	Song
An Inscription Left as a Gift for Chan Master Jian at Lingyan留題贈靈巖鑒公禪師	Zhang Huizong張會宗	Song
Two Poems Given to the Scholar Monk Kong Gu, No. 1贈儒僧空谷二首 其一	Wang Lixin汪立信	Song
Responding in Rhyme to a Poem Sent by the Abbot Zhigong of Donggao Temple次韻東皋寺主僧知恭見寄	Chen Zhu陳著	Song
Ten Poems on Learning Poetry No. 5學詩吟十首 其五	Fang Hui方回	Song
I saw the Assistant Secretary of the Ministry of Finance and the Deputy Secretary writing a fine poem as gift to Master Yuanshi, which praised his Buddhist teachings to be perfect and complete. I admire their subtle and profound verses. I am willing to continue their writings, though I feel deeply ashamed for having a shallow comprehension of Buddhist teachings某伏覩運使金部,運判秘丞,運句贊善贈長老元師詩一首,舉唱三觀圓成。叵測精微,但深讚歎,輒不自揆,願繼善聲,素昧宗乘,頗慙蕪陋	Wen Yanbo文彥博	Song
Farewell to Elder Lian送璉老	Hu Hong胡宏	Song
Huangkan皇侃	Lin Tong林同	Song
Six Poems in Response to the Rhyme on Springtime Observations, No. 5次韻春日即事六首 其五	Hong Hao洪皓	Song
Feelings有感	Zheng Qingzhi鄭清之	Song
Casual Writing偶書	Zou Hao鄒浩	Song
Twenty Miscellaneous Poems, No. 10雜詩二十首 其一○	Tang Geng唐庚	Song
Inscription Left as a Gift for Daoist Liu of Taiping留贈太平劉道士	Wang Yang王洋	Song
A Poem Given to the Monk Qin Shi from Shu贈蜀僧欽師	Gao Side高斯得	Song
Sent as Thanks to Master Zhang of Biyun寄謝碧雲張高士	Cheng Gongxu程公許	Song
Collected Verses from Kunshan Huiju Temple崑山慧聚寺集句	Ge Cizhong葛次仲	Song
Three Poems in Response to the Daoist Chen Tianyin和道士陳天隠三首 其一	Xie Bingde謝枋得	Song
Responding to the Rhyme Gifted by Deputy Minister Li次李侍郎見贈韻	Bai Yuchan白玉蟾	Song
Eighty-Seven Gāthā, No. 80偈頌八十七首 其八○	Huikai慧開	Song
Praise for Huishan Dashi善慧大士贊	Zhiyu智愚	Song
Praise for the Portrait of Master Shanyue Boting at Shang Tianzhu Temple上竺柏庭月法師畫像贊
A Poem to Master Quan and His Brother, Scholar Gao Zhixu贈權上人兼簡其兄高致虛秀才	Daoqian道潜	Song
The Poems on Han and Liu述韓柳詩	Zhiyuan智圓	Song
Response to Master Zhan’s Question on Prior Buddhism and Later Daoism答戰公問先釋後道	Wang Chongyang王重陽	Jin
Master Sun Asks about the Three Teachings孫公問三教
What are Chan and Dao問禪道者何
Daoist Yongxue永學道人
A Gift to the Daoist Practitioners贈道衆
Respecting the Three Teachings敬三教	Ma Yu馬鈺	Jin
Verses on Attesting to Cultivation證修吟
The Three Teachings三教	Tan Chuduan譚處端	Jin
Two Poems for Fellow Daoist Friends赠众道友二首	Wang Chuyi王處一	Jin
Respecting the Three Teachings敬三教
Two Poems Seeking Guidance in the Gate of Chan禪門求教二首
Expressing Feelings述懷	Liu Chuxuan劉處玄	Jin
Thirteen Poems Expressing Respect and Devotion to the Practitioners of the Three Teachings上敬奉三教道众并述怀十三首
Odes of Five-Character Jueju五言絕句頌
Master Shilu had a place for rest, named “Middle Room”. He then asked for a poem師魯先生有宴息之所，榜曰中室，又從而索詩	Qiu Chuji丘處機	Jin
Old Immortal Liu Asks About the “Three Teachings Return to Oneness”劉老仙問三教歸一	Hou Shanyuan侯善淵	Jin
Enlightened Evolution開明演化

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