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Abstract
Neutrinos from very nearby supernovae, such as Betelgeuse, are expected to generate more than ten million events over 10 s in Super-Kamokande (SK). At such large event rates, the buffers of the SK analog-to-digital conversion board (QBEE) will overflow, causing random loss of data that are critical for understanding the dynamics of the supernova explosion mechanism. In order to solve this problem, two new data-acquisition (DAQ) modules were developed to aid in the observation of very nearby supernovae. The first of these, the SN module, is designed to save only the number of hit photomultiplier tubes during a supernova burst and the second, the Veto module, prescales the high-rate neutrino events to prevent the QBEE from overflowing based on information from the SN module. In the event of a very nearby supernova, these modules allow SK to reconstruct the time evolution of the neutrino event rate from beginning to end using both QBEE and SN module data. This paper presents the development and testing of these modules together with an analysis of supernova-like data generated with a flashing laser diode. We demonstrate that the Veto module successfully prevents DAQ overflows for Betelgeuse-like supernovae as well as the long-term stability of the new modules. During normal running the Veto module is found to issue DAQ vetos a few times per month resulting in a total dead-time less than 1 ms, and does not influence ordinary operations. Additionally, using simulation data we find that supernovae closer than 800 pc will trigger the Veto module, resulting in a prescaling of the observed neutrino data.
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Details
1 Department of Physics, Kyoto University, Kyoto , Kyoto 606-8502 , Japan
2 Kamioka Observatory, Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, University of Tokyo , Kamioka, Gifu 506-1205 , Japan
3 Research Center for Cosmic Neutrinos, Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, University of Tokyo , Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8582 , Japan
4 Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), The University of Tokyo Institutes for Advanced Study, University of Tokyo , Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8583 , Japan
5 Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, University of Tokyo , Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8582 , Japan
6 Department of Theoretical Physics, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid , 28049 Madrid , Spain
7 Department of Physics, British Columbia Institute of Technology, Burnaby , BC, V5G 3H2 , Canada
8 Department of Physics, Boston University , Boston, MA 02215 , USA
9 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, CA 92697-4575 , USA
10 Department of Physics, California State University, Dominguez Hills , Carson, CA 90747 , USA
11 Institute for Universe and Elementary Particles, Chonnam National University , Gwangju 61186 , Korea
12 Department of Physics, Duke University , Durham, NC 27708 , USA
13 École Polytechnique, IN2P3-CNRS, Laboratoire Leprince-Ringuet , F-91120 Palaiseau , France
14 Junior College, Fukuoka Institute of Technology , Fukuoka, Fukuoka 811-0295 , Japan
15 Department of Physics, Gifu University, Gifu, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
16 GIST College, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology , Gwangju 500-712 , Korea
17 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Hawaii , Honolulu, HI 96822 , USA
18 Institute for Basic Science (IBS) , Daejeon, 34126 , Korea
19 Institute for Interdisciplinary Research in Science and Education , International Centre for Interdisciplinary Science and Education (ICISE), Quy Nhon, 55121 , Vietnam
20 Department of Physics, Imperial College London , London, SW7 2AZ , UK
21 Dipartimento Interuniversitario di Fisica , INFN Sezione di Bari and Università e Politecnico di Bari, I-70125, Bari , Italy
22 Dipartimento di Fisica, INFN Sezione di Napoli and Università di Napoli , I-80126, Napoli , Italy
23 Dipartimento di Fisica, INFN Sezione di Padova and Università di Padova , I-35131, Padova , Italy
24 INFN Sezione di Roma and Università di Roma “La Sapienza” , I-00185, Roma , Italy
25 ILANCE, CNRS–University of Tokyo International Research Laboratory , Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8582 , Japan
26 Department of Physics, Keio University , Yokohama, Kanagawa 223-8522 , Japan
27 High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) , Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0801 , Japan
28 Department of Physics, King’s College London , London, WC2R 2LS , UK
29 Department of Physics, Kobe University , Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 , Japan
30 Department of Physics, University of Liverpool , Liverpool, L69 7ZE , UK
31 Department of Physics, Miyagi University of Education , Sendai, Miyagi 980-0845 , Japan
32 Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research, Nagoya University , Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602 , Japan
33 National Centre for Nuclear Research , Warsaw, 02-093 , Poland
34 Department of Physics and Astronomy, State University of New York at Stony Brook , Stony Brook, NY 11794-3800 , USA
35 Department of Physics, Okayama University , Okayama, Okayama 700-8530 , Japan
36 Department of Physics, Oxford University , Oxford, OX1 3PU , UK
37 Rutherford Appleton Laboratory , Harwell, Oxford, OX11 0QX , UK
38 Department of Physics, Seoul National University , Seoul 151-742 , Korea
39 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield , Sheffield, S3 7RH , UK
40 Department of Informatics in Social Welfare, Shizuoka University of Welfare , Yaizu, Shizuoka 425-8611 , Japan
41 Department of Physics, Sungkyunkwan University , Suwon 440-746 , Korea
42 Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Tohoku University , Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578 , Japan
43 Department of Physics, Tokai University , Hiratsuka, Kanagawa 259-1292 , Japan
44 Department of Physics, University of Tokyo , Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-0033 , Japan
45 Department of Physics, Tokyo Institute of Technology , Meguro, Tokyo 152-8551 , Japan
46 Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science , Noda, Chiba 278-8510 , Japan
47 Department of Physics, University of Toronto , Toronto, ON, M5S 1A7 , Canada
48 TRIUMF , 4004 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T2A3 , Canada
49 Department of Engineering Physics, Tsinghua University , Beijing, 100084 , China
50 Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw , Warsaw, 02-093 , Poland
51 Department of Physics, University of Warwick , Coventry, CV4 7AL , UK
52 Department of Physics, University of Winnipeg , Winnipeg, MB R3J 3L8 , Canada
53 Department of Physics, Yokohama National University , Yokohama, Kanagawa 240-8501 , Japan