1. Introduction
The Bohai Bay Basin is located on the eastern margin of the Eurasian Plate, and its structure’s evolution is greatly influenced by dynamic processes such as the subduction of the Pacific Plate and deep mantle convection [1,2,3,4]. The Bohai Bay Basin is a Mesozoic–Cenozoic superimposed basin located in the eastern part of the North China Craton, formed on the Paleozoic basement [5,6,7]. It is a petroliferous basin in Eastern China, known for its intricate internal structure, comprising multiple depressions and uplifts [8,9,10]. The basin demonstrates distinctive characteristics of a north–south division and an east–west belt [11]. Moreover, it harbors abundant oil and gas resources in the Neogene strata within the basin [12,13,14]. The Bohai Bay Basin has undergone over sixty years of exploration and is currently the oil and gas basin in China with the highest confirmed geological reserves of petroleum and the highest annual crude oil production. Since the introduction of the “Seven-Year Action Plan to Significantly Enhance Oil and Gas Exploration and Development in China”, exploration activities in the Bohai Bay Basin have continued to progress strongly. Significant discoveries of billion-ton oil fields in the shallow sea and Bohai Sea areas with relatively low exploration levels have been sporadic, demonstrating the long-term sustainable development potential of oil and gas exploration in the Bohai Bay Basin. As a typical marine marginal basin, the formation and evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin are closely linked to the marine environment. It exhibits unique marine geological characteristics and processes in terms of structures, sedimentation, and oil and gas exploration.
The study of the tectonic evolution of worldwide marginal marine basins, such as the Gulf of California Basin located on the eastern margin of the Pacific Ocean in the United States, similarly underwent complex tectonic movements. Throughout its evolutionary history, these basins have undergone multiple phases of tectonic movements, leading to a diverse array of structural styles within the basin. These encompass not only normal fault systems but also strike-slip faults and various other structural types, contributing to the complexity of stratigraphic deformation and sedimentary fill characteristics within the basin. The formation of the Gulf of California Basin occurred relatively late, primarily during the Late Neogene period. Its evolution is closely linked to the uplift of the Cordillera Mountain range and the rapid movement of the Pacific Plate. In contrast, the Bohai Bay Basin formed relatively early, initiating its initial rifting activities from the Late Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous period. It underwent multiple stages of tectonic evolution, reaching a peak of rift activities in the Paleogene. Consequently, the evolutionary history of the Bohai Bay Basin is characterized by its greater length and complexity [15], while the North Sea Basin, located on the eastern margin of the Atlantic Ocean, has also undergone multiple stages of tectonic evolution. In the Late Cenozoic, it was relatively weakly affected by tectonic transformation. The overall tectonic framework of the basin remained relatively stable after the Mesozoic rifting period, and the sedimentary strata show good continuity. In contrast, the Bohai Bay Basin was strongly tectonically reworked in the Late Cenozoic. Especially under the influence of the Himalayan Orogeny, the intra-basin structures became more complex, with frequent fault activities and intense stratigraphic deformation. These factors have had a significant impact on the late-stage migration and accumulation of oil and gas [16,17]. Therefore, studying its structural evolution is of significant importance in revealing the developmental patterns of marine marginal basins and their oil and gas potential, thus providing a fundamental basis for global research on marine marginal basins [18,19,20].
The Huanghua-Kongnan area is located in the southern part of the Bohai Bay Basin. Numerous scholars have conducted extensive research on the structural deformation characteristics and formation mechanisms of the Mesozoic and Paleozoic strata in the Huanghua-Kongnan area by various methods. For example, geological geochemical analysis methods, magnetic exploration methods, seismic exploration methods, and well logging methods have been employed to study this area [21,22,23]. Among these, seismic exploration methods are widely utilized [24,25,26,27,28]. At present, it is generally believed that the Indosinian–Yanshanian period is a major structures deformation period in the Mesozoic era, resulting in a series of broad and gentle east–west trending folds and various reverse fault zones in different directions. However, there exist divergent views or limited research regarding the differences in deformation between the two phases of the Indosinian and Yanshanian periods [29,30]. Some scholars have focused on the thrust fault systems and strike-slip fault actions in the southern part of the Huanghua Depression [31,32,33,34]. Nevertheless, research predominantly centers on thrust fault structures like the Kongxi and Qianmi bridge buried hills, with relatively limited studies regarding the Wangguantun and Wumaying buried hills in the Kongnan region [35,36]. In recent years, with the high oil and gas production flow obtained from the sandstone reservoirs of the Lower Shihezi Formation in Well Yinggu-1 in the Wumaying buried hills, there has been a demonstration of the promising exploration potential of the Paleozoic hidden structural reservoirs [37,38,39,40]. Consequently, the structural deformation characteristics, formation processes, and their impact on hydrocarbon accumulation in the Mesozoic and Paleozoic have emerged as a highly discussed research direction [41,42,43,44,45,46].
Building upon this foundation, this study examines the integrated structural framework of overlapping basins in the Neogene, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic based on 2D and 3D seismic profile data. The primary focus is on the characteristics, types, styles, and sequential relationships of overlapping basins and their fault structures within a multi-stress environment. On the basis of establishing a unified structural framework for the Neogene, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic overlapping basins, this study dissects the nature, types, styles, and combinations of fault structures. Subsequently, the study investigates the structure’s evolution and formation processes during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. It analyzes the correlation between the hydrocarbon expulsion period of Paleozoic source rocks and the main structure’s formation periods, exploring the laws governing the dynamic hydrocarbon accumulation in the Paleozoic era and their controlling mechanisms. This aims to unveil the intricate processes of hydrocarbon accumulation and preservation under marine geological conditions, propelling the exploration and development of oil and gas resources in the Bohai Bay Basin into a new phase. It also aims to provide a theoretical foundation for the efficient development of oil and gas resources in marginal marine basins.
2. Geological Setting
This region is located in the southern segment of the Huanghua Depression, bordered by the Cangdong Fault to the east, the Xuxi Fault to the west, and flanked by the Kongdian Anticline Belt to the south and the Dongguang Uplift to the north (Figure 1). In the study area, the Paleozoic era is characterized by carbonic basins and plateaus [47,48]. The primary formation periods for the structural framework of the target layer span from the Middle-Late Triassic to the Early-Mid Cretaceous, encompassing the Indosinian and Yanshanian periods. The current structural features primarily formed during the Early Eocene to Early Oligocene, as an outcome of the superposition of the Kongdian and Shahejie periods. The fault depression structures of the Kongdian period are primarily characterized by duplex and graben structures. The Cangdong and Xuxi faults serve as boundary faults that control the duplex structures and constrain the distribution of the Kongdian Formation [49,50,51]. The Kongnan region displays complex geological features with overlapping phases of structural activities and well-developed fault systems, indicating a high degree of structural complexity.
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Structures Layer Division
As a result of multiple episodes of stress primarily from the Indosinian–Yanshan and Himalayan periods, different structural layers have overlapped and combined in time and space, leading to complex and diverse structural deformations [52,53]. As illustrated in Figure 2, given the characteristics of superimposed basins from the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras, the Kongnan region can be classified into two primary sets of structural deformation layers: the Mesozoic deformation layer and the Cenozoic deformation structural layer. These are separated by regional angular unconformities. The Mesozoic deformation layer features a dual-layered deformation structure, which can be elaborated into the Cambrian to Middle Ordovician structural layer and the Carboniferous to Middle Jurassic structural layer. The Middle Ordovician Xiamagou Formation shale interval and the Carboniferous to Permian Taiyuan Formation–Shanxi Formation coal-bearing strata constitute two sets of intervening and internal detachment layers. The internal mudstone within the Cambrian Mantou Formation serves as another detachment layer. The axial trends of the backthrusting and pop-up structures in the upper and lower structural layers of the Meso-Paleozoic are basically the same and are generally in the NEE-EW direction. As is shown in Figure 2, the basic characteristics of the deformation layer are as follows.
3.1.1. Cambrian–Middle Ordovician Backthrust System (Thick-Skinned Structures)
Overall, it is characterized by backthrust structural features, consisting of thrust backfolds and basement-involved imbricate thrust faults. The thickness of the layer ranges from approximately 1300 to 1600 m, characterized by a burial depth that increases from north to south and thinning from west to east. This area is an intracratonic depression, dominated by restricted to open platform facies carbonate rock deposition [54]. As shown in Figure 3, the seismic profile illustrates that, from south to north, the characteristics of Well Wusheng-1, Well Wanggu-1, and the northern region exhibit two sets of continuous backthrust structural combinations, with backthrust faults cut into the basement. In the southern section, the back-tilted amplitude increases, with the development of basement-involved imbricate thrust faults. Moving north from Well Wanggu-1, the area still exhibits anticlinal characteristics, with a lower degree of thrust fault development. There is a wide and gentle anticline transition, showing a structural deformation pattern of stronger deformation in the south and weaker deformation in the north.
3.1.2. Upper Ordovician–Middle Jurassic Slip Nappe Hedge System (Thin-Skinned Structuress)
Overall, it is characterized by thrust structures. This layer exhibits pronounced imbricate thrust faulting and reverse fault-bend folding, with well-developed backthrusts and reverse fault-propagation folds. Transitioning into the underlying Majiagou Formation Shale unit involves soft detachment and shear deformation. Internally, a system of thrusting and overthrusting structures involving Carboniferous–Permian coal-bearing strata can be observed. The thickness of this layer ranges approximately between 700 and 1100 m, with a burial depth that increases from north to south and a thickness that decreases from west to east. The Ordovician–Carboniferous detachment layer exhibits 3–4 phases of medium to high-frequency reflections on seismic profiles, displaying excellent continuity. The reflections show a strong intensity along the same phase axis. The Mesozoic strata, in contrast, are relatively constrained, predominantly found on the western flank of the thrust–overthrust belt. Some instances of missing strata are a consequence of differential erosion associated with the Yanshan Orogeny.
3.1.3. Lower Tertiary Extension/Shear Structural Layer
Predominantly comprised of the Lower Tertiary series, featuring graben and conjugate extensional normal fault systems as the primary structural elements, with widespread development of NE-trending strike-slip faults. The underlying Mesozoic–Paleozoic strata exhibit a complex array of fault structures, including anticlines and thrusts formed during the Indosinian to Yanshanian orogenic events. The development of the above overlying conjugate extensional normal fault systems indicates the control exerted by ancient structures on later faulting processes. Seismic profiles reveal a significant and extensive unconformity between the Kongdian Formation and the underlying Mesozoic strata, extending beyond the boundaries of the basin area. In different regions, the underlying formations consist of J3−K−, J1+2, or T strata. The unconformity interface (Ek3 base interface) is mainly characterized by medium to high-amplitude reflections, moderate to poor continuity, and medium to low-frequency 1–2 phase reflections. The area is predominantly characterized by fault depression and basin sedimentation, exerting a certain degree of modification on the earlier formed anticlines and synclines structures.
3.2. Structures Layer Superposition Relationship
The study area comprises multiple overlapping residual basins from the Paleogene, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras [18,55]. Apart from the parallel unconformities within the Paleozoic strata, there are high-angle regional unconformities between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata. Both the Triassic and Cretaceous formations have experienced varying degrees of erosion. Although there is erosion present in the Upper Paleozoic Permian Shiqianfeng Formation, the Lower Paleozoic Cambrian–Ordovician strata remain relatively intact. According to the seismic profiles, it is revealed that the Middle to Upper Paleozoic strata have undergone two distinct stages of superimposed structural deformation. During the Indosinian Orogeny, influenced by compressive stress oriented approximately SN-SW, the entire region developed broad and gentle anticlines and synclines alternating in an EW-NEE direction. During Yanshan Orogeny, under the influence of NNW-SE compression, the western limbs of the anticlines formed thrust faults trending NE and NNE. Therefore, the structural layers of the Middle to Upper Paleozoic exhibit characteristics trending approximately EW and NNE.
As shown in Figure 4, two sets of structurally distinct assemblages underwent compression during two different periods. During this process, in the near east–west trending anticlines and northeast trending thrust faults, the Permian to Middle Jurassic strata underwent varying degrees of erosion, leading to the formation of intricate anticlines, synclines, and thrust-fold structures. In the upper part of the Wumaying Anticline, erosion zones primarily occur in the Upper Triassic strata of the Indosinian Period. This anticline follows the near east–west trending structural axis of the Indosinian Period anticline, preserving thick Middle to Lower Triassic strata and relatively intact Paleozoic strata. In contrast to the northwest-southeast stress direction during the Yanshan period, this region exhibits typical structural features of thrust faulting and folding, characteristic of an oblique thrust-fold belt. Faults have dissected the large east–west trending anticlinal structures formed during the Indosinian period, and their interactions have resulted in the formation of a complex rhomboidal mesh structure. In the thrust fault zones, intense thrusting has occurred with significant displacement along the faults, resulting in severe erosion of the Middle Jurassic strata at the top of the hanging wall block. During the Late Yanshan Orogeny, distinct segments of the Permian strata demonstrate varying extents of erosion. In the extensional environment of the Cenozoic era, structural features underwent negative inversion, faults experienced backsliding, and the spatial overlap of these three factors intricately complicated the fault structure combination.
Seismic profiles reveal that in the Cenozoic era, there were predominantly normal faults and thrust faults, with the Mesozoic and Paleozoic strata experiencing overlapping effects of the two structures movements during the Indo-Chinese and Yanshan Orogenies. During this process, a high-angle unconformity formed between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, resulting from the mountain-building effects of the Wumaying anticline and thrust fault structures. The intense compressional forces during the Yanshan Orogeny further intensified the uplift of the Lower Paleozoic, causing the near east–west trending thrust faults to exhibit greater inherited thrust magnitudes during the Indo-Chinese period. The basement to Middle Ordovician strata experienced compression folds, basement-involved thrust faults, and imbricate thrust fault structures. Meanwhile, from the Carboniferous to the Middle Jurassic, the structural layers displayed thrust faults characterized by sliding and overriding along the base of the Carboniferous coal seams. In general, this resulted in a duplex system of thrust and backthrust deformations, with the primary structure stress originating from the SSE direction. Expanding on this, during the Yanshan Orogeny, we observe the superimposition of near-SN to NNE-directed thrust and nappe structures. This period is marked by a rich array of structural styles, such as layer-parallel slip, fault-bend folding, fault propagation folding, reverse thrust faults, and triangular-shaped structural wedges.
4. Results
4.1. Structures Style
In the study area, the Mesozoic–Cenozoic strata have undergone a structure cycle transitioning from carbonic sagging to orogenic bending and ultimately to rift subsiding [56]. The construction and modification processes are primarily influenced by compressional, strike-slip, and extensional stress deformation mechanisms, leading to a varied array of structural properties, types, and styles. Hence, the categorization of structural styles is primarily grounded in the mechanical attributes of structural deformation, stress transmission mechanisms, and geometric configurations [57]. Furthermore, it extensively takes into account the extent of basement involvement (thick-skinned versus thin-skinned), stratigraphic hierarchy, stages of structural deformation, causal interrelations, combinations of faults and folds, as well as their respective scales. We have classified four types and thirteen styles of structures, encompassing compressional structures, extensional structures, strike-slip structures, and thrust structures.
4.1.1. Compressional Structures Pattern
As depicted in Figure 5, the region can be categorized into seven types of compressional structural styles. The thick-skinned basement-involved type primarily includes two structural types: backthrusting, and imbricate thrusting. These structures are located within the Cambrian–Middle Ordovician structural layers, with faults extending into the basement and influencing the distribution of Indosinian NEE-trending gentle synclines and anticlines. The thin-skinned cover detachment type encompasses five structural styles. Fold-thrust structures are prevalent in the region, with imbricated thrusting present in the hanging wall and footwall of the main thrust fault. Backthrusting occurs in the upper hanging wall of Well Kongnan-7 and near the footwall of the Kongdong fault. Imbricate thrust structures are extensively distributed in areas such as Wangguantun Qianshan, Wumaying anticline, and the western side of the hanging wall of the thrust sheet. Triangle thrust wedges and imbricate thrust wedges are predominantly found at the front end of the middle section and the lower part of the main body of the thrust sheet. The detachment layer of these thin-skinned structures mainly comprises multiple coal-bearing sequences from the Carboniferous–Permian series, with some sections consisting of mudstone layers from the Lower Ordovician Mamugou Formation. Backthrusting structures in the basement-involved type primarily originated during the Indosinian period, whereas the structural styles associated with the Mesozoic thrust sheets in the thin-skinned cover detachment type predominantly developed during the Yanshanian period.
4.1.2. Extensional Structures Pattern
As shown in Figure 6, the area can be divided into four types of extensional structural styles. This type of style is not only widely distributed in the Cenozoic rifts but also in the Mesozoic stratigraphic sequences. This is due to the basin-forming structure activities in the Cenozoic, resulting in the cutting and separation of the underlying Mesozoic stratigraphic sequences. In the Middle Mesozoic, grabens and half-grabens are predominantly distributed south of Well Wusheng-1, mainly formed during the deposition of the Kongdian Formation. Antithetical and synthetic fault scarps are primarily distributed on the eastern footwall of the thrust sheet, near Well Wusheng-1, and on the western limb of the Wangguantun anticline. They are widely distributed, with the main formative period during the deposition of the Kongdian Formation to the Shahejie Formation. The formation mechanism involves the generation of various orders of conjugate normal fault systems under extensional rifting, cutting, and separating the layers of the Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic. It also represents a combination and superposition of Mesozoic compressional structures.
4.1.3. Strike-Slip and Thrust Structures Pattern
As illustrated in Figure 7, the area also exhibits strike-slip and thrust structures. The fault system dominated by the Xuxi Fault and the Kongdong Fault exhibits a northeastward extension with characteristic flower structures. Based on the stratigraphic contact between the two blocks of the Xuxi Fault and the Kongdian Formation to Shahejie Formation, it is considered that the deposition period of the Kongdian Formation represents the main period of strike-slip activity. It is speculated that the Tan-Lu Fault system consists of coeval low-order faults, not only controlling the deposition of the Cenozoic Kongdian Formation to Shahejie Formation, but also playing a crucial role in the segmentation and formation of ancient, buried hills in the Mesozoic. During the deposition of the Kongdian Formation to Shahejie Formation, four sets of NW-trending sinistral shear zones were also generated, speculated to be associated with the activity of the Tan-Lu Fault system. Moreover, thrust faults generated during the Indosinian–Yanshanian periods transformed into normal fault structures with widespread positive inversion during the Himalayan period.
4.2. Characteristics of Thrust Nappe Belt
Thrust–overthrust belts are developed within the Carboniferous–Permian–Mesozoic structural layers, with the detachment system primarily composed of coal measures from the Carboniferous to Permian series. Extending from the southern end of the Wumaying Anticline’s western limb (south of Well Wusheng-1) to the northern part of the Wangguantun anticline (north of Well Wanggu-1), they exhibit an NS-NNE orientation, as depicted in Figure 8. Thrust–overthrust belt structures are complex. Vertically, various thrusting phenomena overlap, exhibiting diverse forms. The segmented nature of planar thrusting is evident, with different combinations of thrust styles displaying marked diversity and gradation. These belts are characterized by segmented patterns from north to south and vertically stratified features. Through analysis of structural cross-sections at various orientations and depths in the region, it is believed that thrust–overthrust deformation and displacement are attributed to compressional movements during the Yanshanian Orogeny. The thrust–overthrust belts can be divided into four stages.
4.2.1. South Section Pop-Up and Backthrust Combination
In the southern segment of the area, the predominant geological feature is thrust–overthrust structures, with these faults mainly distributed at the crest of the Wumaying Anticline, characterized by low-amplitude thrust–overthrust primarily. After compression, the active plate underwent thrusting while the passive plate experienced uplift, forming a distinct pair of pop-up and backthrust faulting combinations. The lower basement-Ordovician structural layers are dominated by imbricate thrust structures, along with the development of some secondary back thrust and back-tilted structures.
4.2.2. Mid-South Double-Layer Double Layer Backthrust Extension-Pop-Up Combination
The combination of back-tilted extension following uplift and thrusting exhibits a prominent phenomenon of backthrust nappe. Its main features include the reverse back-tilted detachment of the active plate, the counterthrust action of the passive plate, and triangular thrust structures. This structural activity resulted in steep bedding attitudes of the strata, followed by significant erosion of the Late Jurassic to Cretaceous formations. This type of structural feature, exemplified by the western side of the Wumaying Anticline, exhibits strong reverse faulting with back-tilted thrust-over sequences.
4.2.3. North Section West-East Double Layer Imbricated Thrust and Compound Backthrust
In the eastern part of the northern segment, there is a duplex backthrust structure. Under compression within the study area, Carboniferous to Mesozoic and upper Ordovician strata have started to fold. The involvement of minor thrusting results in the development of underlying fold deformation. In the study area, multiple layers of backthrusts are superimposed, creating backthrust anticlines, such as the wing sections of the Wangguantun anticline. In the western part of the northern segment, there exists a double-layer imbricate thrust-fault combination. Under compressional stress in the study area, the upper Ordovician imbricate backthrusts overlap with the lower basement backthrusts, transforming from a passive margin into a duplex backthrust and thrust structure.
5. Discussion
5.1. Structure Evolution
There are three characteristics in the evolution of the middle and Paleozoic structures in the Kongdian area: compression, tension, and strike-slip shear [58,59]. This study, integrating structural evolution with the structural and burial history profiles (Figure 9) and a three-dimensional model of basin superposition structural evolution (Figure 10), summarizes that the Kongnan area has primarily undergone the following five stages of structural evolution.
5.1.1. The Early Caledonian Period Represents an Intracratonic Sag Phase (Pre-T Deposition)
The seismic reflection exhibits parallel to sub-parallel sets, stable frequencies, and well-defined, continuous sheet-like structures. The primary control factors of Paleozoic basin evolution are the ocean–land tectonic setting of the North China Craton, with basin formation primarily occurring at the margins of the craton [60,61]. Between different strata, parallel conformable or unconformable contact relationships are commonly observed. During the Cambrian to Ordovician periods, it was primarily a time of marine carbonate sedimentary deposition. Subsequently, during the Middle to Late Ordovician, the entire platform underwent uplift (referred to as the Caledonian Orogeny), followed by a certain degree of subsidence in the Mid-Late Carboniferous on the platform. This process resulted in the entire platform losing the Upper Ordovician to Lower Carboniferous strata, yet the pattern of subsidence and uplift zones did not undergo significant changes. During the Carboniferous–Permian period, there was deposition of transitional marine-terrestrial facies, including coal-bearing rock sequences.
5.1.2. The Indosinian Period Marked the Formation Period of Broad Gentle Back-Arc Folds (Pre-J1+2 Sedimentation)
Under compression in the southeastern region, the study area developed basement-involved imbricate thrust faults and broad gentle back-arc folds, such as the Wumaying and Wangguantun anticlines, which are secondary folds within the same anticlinal belt. During this period, influenced by the marginal mountain belt, the Kongnan area in the Lower Paleozoic witnessed a significant occurrence of basement-involved thrust faults. The Triassic system interfaced with the underlying strata, experiencing folding characterized by gentle dips and lacking major deformation in folding.
5.1.3. The Yanshan Period Was Primarily Characterized by the Formation of Thrust Fault Detachment and Nappe Structures (Pre-Ek Sedimentation)
During the Late Yanshan Orogeny, overlying J-T strata underwent erosion and leveling. The J3−K1 strata persist in low-lying areas, overlying the J1+2 strata. During the intracontinental Yanshan Orogeny phase, the study area experienced cover detachment thrusting under northwest-southeast compression, resulting in fault-bend folds and transient folding. The strata exhibit pronounced folding. The overthrust belts of the Paleozoic to Mesozoic primarily developed during this period. On the northeast-verging thrust fault, the overlying Triassic to Jurassic strata underwent erosion and leveling during the Late Yanshan Orogeny. During the later uplift stage, the Wumaying anticline underwent secondary erosion.
5.1.4. The Himalayan Period Represents a Phase of Development and Modification of Normal Faults and Strike-Slip Faults (Pre-Es Deposition)
Overall, it is characterized by intense extensional faulting and strike-slip extensional tectonics. During the deposition of the Kongdian Formation, the strike-slip shearing activity was relatively intense, whereas in the deposition period of the Shahejie Formation, extensional faulting predominated [62]. The main features included fault-controlled basins and conjugate fault systems. However, there were modifications by strike-slip shearing faults in the NE and NW directions. The fault activity of the Guantao-Minghuazhen Formation is characterized by gentle inclination, mostly confined to fault-controlled basin activity, and gradually diminishing.
5.2. Analysis of Typical Structural Genesis
Based on seismic profile interpretation and structural evolution profiles, a typical structural genesis analysis was conducted. The Wumaying anticline originated in the Triassic period and experienced intense compression during the Early to Middle Jurassic and Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous periods, further increasing the amplitude of fold uplift. The southern region of the anticline was significantly affected by deformation, leading to the development of thrust faults. This period primarily contributed to the formation of the Wumaying anticline, along with the development of the Wangguantun south anticline and the potential Xuhei anticline, as well as the emergence of thrust nappe belts. During the Cenozoic era, under the extensional environment of the Guantun anticline, the down-cutting of faults on both flanks formed buried hill structures. The Xuhei anticline, on the other hand, resulted from late-stage structural reverse faulting and folding, evolving into fault block buried hills through tilting and rotation. In the Cenozoic research area, under extensional forces, the eastern fault of Kongdian cuts down on both sides of the anticline, forming the Wangguantun buried hill structure. In a similar manner, the Xuhei buried hill also developed as an anticline during the Triassic-Early to Middle Jurassic-Early Cretaceous periods, undergoing structural inversion and fault down-cutting processes to evolve into a fault block buried hill.
5.3. Structural Control on Reservoir Analysis
In the southern region, there are two major sets of hydrocarbon source rock systems in the Paleozoic [63,64,65]. One set comprises the Shanxi Formation and the Taiyuan Formation in the Upper Paleozoic, predominantly characterized by carbonaceous shales, coal shales, and dark shales. [37] The other source rock system originates from the Cambrian-Ordovician strata in the Lower Paleozoic. Based on the study of the current structural characteristics and evolution, along with the matching relationship between hydrocarbon source rock generation and expulsion periods and reservoir-seal combinations, it is believed that the oil and gas accumulation patterns and reservoir formation in the Kongnan area exhibit a characteristic of early anticline controlled oil accumulation-primary reservoir formation, mid-term thrust erosion adjustment–secondary reservoir formation, late-stage fault block modification–multiple-stage reservoir formation. This has led to the development of a complex reservoir system in the Neogene, Paleogene, and Mesozoic formations, characterized by composite positive structural accumulation, coexistence of primary and secondary reservoirs, and multiple types of oil and gas reservoirs. In the Kongnan area, the Mesozoic Xuhe anticline and Wangguantun anticline, generated in the Mesozoic, along with corresponding fault block anticlines and faulted anticlines in the Cenozoic, all possess similar conditions for complex reservoir formation. The prediction of oil and gas reservoirs is illustrated in Figure 8.
5.3.1. Early Anticline Controlled Oil Accumulation-Primary Reservoir Formation
During the Late Triassic sedimentation, the Kongnan region experienced near north–south compression during the Indosinian period. In the Middle to Upper Paleozoic, the area manifests a broad, gently dipping back-arc zone trending approximately east–west. Progressing from south to north, structural features including the Xuhei syncline, Wumaying syncline, Wangguantun syncline, and associated anticlines are prominently developed. Each anticlinal ridge serves as a zone directing the accumulation of oil and gas resources. In the Early Yanshanian period of the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sedimentation, the Mid-Paleozoic to Paleozoic formations in the Kongnan area underwent NNW-directed stress compression. Initially, this resulted in the uplift of the western limb of an anticline, forming an NNE-trending fold belt, with thrust faults showing limited development. At this time, it signifies the primary hydrocarbon generation period of the Paleozoic source rocks. We believe that the primary hydrocarbon reservoirs formed are controlled by the anticlines developed during the Indosinian period, with the fold adjustments during the Early Yanshanian period serving as secondary accumulation features.
5.3.2. Mid-Term Thrust Erosion Adjustment-Secondary Reservoir Formation
During the Late Cretaceous (Late Yanshanian period), the Kongnan area underwent intense intracontinental mountain-building movements, leading to a shallowing of the overall burial depth of the source rocks and a cessation of hydrocarbon generation. The intense intracontinental mountain-building movements not only resulted in the erosion of the Permian strata at the crests of the anticlines formed during the Indosinian period but also led to the development of thrust strike-slip nappe belts along the western limbs of the anticlines. Due to the intense imbricate thrusting and the involvement of the Upper Paleozoic coal-measure strata in the detachment process, the hydrocarbon reservoirs formed in the proximal area during the first stage of the nappe zone may be locally adjusted or dissipated. Moreover, except for the reservoir–caprock assemblages at the top being affected by erosion, the main body of the anticline remains unaffected. Therefore, it is considered that the thrust, detachment, and erosion in the Kongnan area have generated secondary hydrocarbon reservoirs in fault blocks and faulted anticlines, while most of the primary hydrocarbon reservoirs controlled by the Paleozoic anticlines during the Indosinian period are well preserved.
5.3.3. Late-Stage Fault Block Modification-Multiple-Stage Reservoir Formation
During the Cenozoic sedimentation period, the Kongnan area of the Huanghua Depression entered a faulty subsidence stage, which was influenced by strike-slip and extensional tectonic forces. Represented by the Wumaying anticline and other Mesozoic anticlines, thick deposits of the Kongdian Formation and Shahejie Formation were laid down during the Himalayan Orogeny on the buried hills formed above the Mesozoic anticlines and thrust-fold belts that had been subjected to intracontinental mountain building and erosion. Above the Wumaying anticline, a superimposed anticline with inherited characteristics was formed. Intense stretching led to the development of an essentially syn-sedimentary conjugate fault system associated with the superimposed anticline. As a result, centered on the Wumaying anticline in the Kongnan area, a vertical sequence of conjugate fault blocks was formed, characterized by the superposition of the Paleozoic compressional anticlines and thrust-fold belts at the base, and a superimposed anticline at the top. These blocks are linked by angular unconformities and constitute a hydrocarbon accumulation system formed by fault combinations of varying properties and types across the Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic strata. Since the Mesozoic, the region has remained in a reactivated thrust zone, providing a key migration and accumulation pathway for oil and gas during the generation and expulsion phases of source rocks across various stratigraphic layers.
6. Conclusions
This study aims to elucidate the control of structural characteristics and evolution of oil and gas accumulation under marine geological conditions, providing a theoretical basis for the efficient development of oil and gas resources in marginal basins in the future. Through a comprehensive study of the structural combination and tectonic evolution of the Neogene–Mesozoic overlapping basins in the Kongnan area of the Bohai Bay Basin, the most significant conclusions are as follows:
(1). The study area exhibits four structural properties including compression, extension, strike-slip, and thrust structures, as well as thirteen fundamental styles. The Mesozoic–Cenozoic strata are predominantly characterized by compression structures. Meanwhile, it is proposed for the first time that the Middle-Upper Mesozoic exhibits a vertical dual-layer deformation structure, characterized by the Lower Paleozoic basal involved back/foreland fold and the Upper Paleozoic-Mesozoic cover detachment thrust-over structure. The detachment surface is represented by the Carboniferous coal-bearing strata and the lower Majiagou Formation shale segment of the Middle Ordovician.
(2). The thrust-over belt of the Upper Paleozoic-Mesozoic mainly developed during the Yanshan intracontinental orogeny, with two episodes of unconformity erosion surfaces formed during the Indosinian–Yanshanian periods. Various stratigraphic units and structures related to unconformities may form effective trap types, making it one of the most promising directions for Middle Mesozoic hydrocarbon exploration in the region.
(3). The main stages of structural evolution include five major periods: stable platform stage, wide gentle back-tilting stage, detachment thrusting stage, structural inversion and modification stage, and faulting-fold subsidence modification stage. The Wumaying anticline primarily formed during the Indosinian period and underwent significant modifications during the Yanshanian–Xishanian periods. The Xuhei buried hill and Wangguantun anticlines are part of the anticlines formed during the Indosinian period, with structural negative inversion faults cutting through them during the Xishanian period. The thrust-over zones in the Paleozoic to Mesozoic were primarily formed during the Yanshan intracontinental mountain-building period. The relatively stable anticlines or buried hills formed during the Indosinian period may represent one of the most promising types of hydrocarbon reservoir exploration in the Middle Mesozoic of this region.
(4). The correlation between the structural evolution of the study area and the hydrocarbon expulsion periods from source rocks is well-matched, with three key hydrocarbon accumulation periods identified. This resulted in the establishment of a composite reservoir system in the Neogene–Mesozoic era, characterized by multiple-stage structural oil and gas accumulation, coexistence of primary and secondary hydrocarbons, and various types of oil and gas reservoirs.
(5). Due to constraints imposed by the limited availability of geophysical exploration data, this study is subject to limitations. It is recommended to focus on the entire Paleozoic of the Bohai Bay Basin, emphasizing the exploration and research of marine Lower Paleozoic hydrocarbon resources. Selecting geophysical methods to identify the internal structures of ancient, buried hills and analyze the hydrocarbon reservoirs within them, in order to identify potential areas for oil and gas exploration.
Conceptualization, D.P. and D.Y.; Methodology, D.P. and D.Y. and F.C.; Software, D.P., D.Y. and F.C.; Validation, D.P., F.C. and X.S.; Formal analysis, D.P., D.Y. and Y.L.; Investigation, D.Y. and X.S.; Resources, D.P., F.C. and Z.T.; Data curation, D.P., Z.T. and Y.L.; Writing—original draft preparation, D.P.; Writing—review and editing, D.Y., F.C., X.S., Z.T. and Y.L.; Visualization, D.P. and X.S.; Supervision, D.Y. and F.C.; Project administration, D.P. and X.S.; Funding acquisition, D.P., D.Y. and F.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 1. (a) Structural diagram of the lower boundary of the Shihexia Formation in the Wangguantun–Wumaying area. (b) Diagram of the lower boundary fault system of the Shihexia Formation.
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. (a–c) Typical seismic profiles within the study area; (d–f) typical geological interpretation profiles within the study area.
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. (a–c) Typical seismic profiles within the study area; (d–f) typical geological interpretation profiles within the study area.
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Profile interpretation and coherent comparison analysis with the 2415 ms seismic slice, as well as the regional stress field slice analysis during the Indosinian–Yanshan periods.
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. Compression structural style diagram. (a) Flexural and extensional faulting; (b) Imbricate recoil; (c) Reverse thrust imbricate structure; (d) Triangular structures wedge; (e) Imbricate thrust wedge; (f) Pop-up and backthrust structures; (g) Imbricate single-thrust structure.
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. Extensional structures diagram. (a) Graben and half graben; (b) horst; (c) forward fault step; (d) backward fault step.
Enlarge this image.Figure 7. Strike-slip and thrust structures diagram. (a) Negative flower structures; (b) negative reverse Structure.
Enlarge this image.Figure 9. Structural evolution profile and hydrocarbon accumulation profile of the Kongnan area.
Enlarge this image.Figure 10. Tectonic evolution three-dimensional model diagram of the superimposed basin in the Kongnan area. (a) Craton basin. (b) Late Triassic (Indosinian period): stages of the formation of wide gentle slopes and anticlines. (c) Early Jurassic to Middle Jurassic (Early Yanshanian period): stages of imbricated thrust and backthrusting. (d) Late Cretaceous (Mid-Late Yanshanian period): stages of thrust fault detachment and nappe structures. (e) Cenozoic (Himalayan period): stages of shearing, strike-slip and extensional fault depression.
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; Yang, Dong 2 ; Cheng, Fei 3 ; She, Xiaoyu 1 ; Tao, Ze 4 ; Liu, Yukun 1 1 Key Laboratory of Exploration Technologies for Oil and Gas Resource, Ministry of Education, Yangtze University, Wuhan 430100, China;
2 Key Laboratory of Exploration Technologies for Oil and Gas Resource, Ministry of Education, Yangtze University, Wuhan 430100, China;
3 Hubei Key Laboratory of Marine Geological Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China;
4 College of Resource and Environment, Yangtze University, Wuhan 430100, China;