1. Introduction
Flooding is one of Malaysia’s most common natural disasters [1,2], made worse due to the country’s tropical climate along with monsoon seasons and high rainfall, as well as the nation’s vast river systems, rapid urbanization, and deforestation. Flash floods frequently occur, submerging low-lying areas and severely damaging livelihoods and property [3]. Malaysia is also prone to various disasters, for instance, landslides, particularly in regions with unstable slopes and hilly topography [4]. Deforestation, inappropriate land-use techniques, and intense rainfall exacerbate slope instability and soil erosion, making communities more vulnerable to landslide risks [5,6]. Therefore, effective risk management plans and their implementation are required to build resilience across the nation depending on the nature and dynamics of the disaster risks [7].
Among many current hazards, the Shah Alam area frequently experienced flash floods. Numerous factors contribute to flood disasters [8]. For instance, a severe flash flood that occurred in 2021 left nearly 50 people dead and 5 more missing [9]. This number of fatalities is the highest in Malaysian flood disaster history. Residents did not have enough time to evacuate and save themselves due to the incredibly rare occurrence of flash floods and the rise in water levels in some areas that rarely experience the disaster [10]. The main river that flows through Shah Alam’s state capital area is the Klang River. It has several tributaries, including the Damansara River, which flows through the Damansara Mukim and exacerbates flash floods [11]. Because the water reservoir in the river surpasses the appropriate limit, high rainfall rates caused the water level to rise and the river’s flow to increase, resulting in flooding in the Shah Alam area [12].
Moreover, Shah Alam’s low-lying area contributes to stagnant water, particularly in Section 13, Taman Sri Muda, and Shah Alam Stadium areas, as this area is covered in housing developments and construction sites that slow down the rate at which water absorbs from the earth [13]. Flash floods are events where the water level rises during or immediately following the precipitation that triggers the rise. Small catchments are therefore susceptible to flash floods because the drainage basin responds swiftly. The abrupt rise and water flow in a flash flood can cause enormous damage [14]. These flash floods significantly alter how society handles everyday problems [2]. Rebuilding items destroyed by flash floods will be another hardship for the locals due to losses and damages. Residents have lodged numerous complaints about flash floods to the government, but as of right now, the problem of flash floods destroying residents’ property remains unresolved [15].
Malaysia also faces the threat of tsunamis, mostly caused by undersea earthquakes, leading to coastal flooding [16,17]. Therefore, effective early warning systems and evacuation procedures are required along the country’s coastal areas to minimize the damage from coastal flooding. In addition, Malaysia is also vulnerable to meteorological events such as tropical storms and severe weather [18]. Landmasses to the north and west usually protect the nation from the direct effects of tropical cyclones, however, these weather systems can still cause severe winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges that can cause localized flooding and infrastructure damage [19,20]. Furthermore, long-term issues brought about by sea level rise and climate change-induced variability exacerbate the frequency and severity of natural disasters in Malaysia [21].
Considering these enduring dangers, a strong and flexible framework for disaster management is urgently needed, one that prioritizes prevention, mitigation, and recovery while also effectively handling crises. Given that both natural and man-made disasters can strike Malaysia, disaster management is a crucial component of the nation’s governance system [22]. To reduce the effects of disasters on the populace, infrastructure, and economy, the Malaysian government has taken a proactive approach to disaster management, concentrating on preparedness, response, and recovery [23]. To protect Malaysian citizens’ safety and well-being in the event of a disaster, disaster management plans and policies have been developed and put into effect [24]. Cooperation and coordination among agencies, non-governmental organizations, and other stakeholders are important elements of Malaysia’s disaster management strategy (Table 1).
Malaysia has emphasized the importance of community engagement and interaction in disaster management [25,26,27]. Community-based efforts such as volunteerism and the creation of disaster response teams have significantly enhanced local resilience and response capability [28]. These programs enable localities to plan for emergencies through early warning systems, scheduling evacuations, and providing first aid training. Through community engagement in disaster management, Malaysia has developed a more resilient and robust society that can withstand and bounce back from calamities. Malaysia has invested in early warning systems and risk assessment tools to improve its preparedness for natural catastrophes [29,30]. The Malaysian Meteorological Department is essential in monitoring and forecasting weather-related disasters such as monsoons, tropical storms, and heavy rains. Authorities can issue early warnings to the public through timely and accurate weather forecasts, enabling people and communities to take the appropriate safety precautions and evacuate high-risk areas [31].
Malaysia has acknowledged the importance of addressing man-made disasters, such as industrial accidents and public health emergencies, in addition to natural disasters [27,32]. To reduce the danger of industrial disasters, the nation has set strict laws and safety requirements for various industries, especially those producing chemicals, transportation, and oil and gas. Furthermore, strong disease surveillance, response procedures, and public health awareness campaigns to stop and manage infectious disease outbreaks have prepared Malaysia’s healthcare system to handle public health catastrophes [33]. To aid in recovery and reconstruction, disaster aftermath frequently calls for a concerted and ongoing effort. Malaysia has created extensive post-disaster recovery frameworks and plans to meet the short- and long-term requirements of the infrastructure and impacted communities [34,35]. To help those affected by disasters, the government has set aside funds for emergency relief, housing, healthcare, and livelihood support.
In general, Malaysian disaster management includes a broad range of policies and programs designed to lessen the effects of natural disasters on the nation and its citizens [36]. Malaysia has exhibited its dedication to preserving the resilience and welfare of its populace against a range of dynamic disasters using anticipatory planning, efficient response systems, and long-term rehabilitation initiatives. Nonetheless, the local government continues to face numerous obstacles and issues when handling flood disasters [37,38], especially due to the local government’s insufficient ability to mitigate the effects of the flood disaster in Shah Alam, even with current initiatives [39]. By concentrating on Shah Alam, an area that experiences regular flash floods, this work takes a localized approach to flood risk management, which is innovative. While previous research has often addressed flood threats at a more regional or national level, this study offers suggestions for flood management specifically suited to the local issues that communities in Shah Alam face based on literature analysis and community perceptions. It emphasizes how crucial community involvement is to disaster management, bringing local expertise to the table to make decisions on flood risk strategies that are more flexible and successful. Evidence-based strategies are also emphasized in the paper, highlighting the necessity of a coordinated policy response that incorporates expert advice and community requests. This work offers a framework for sustainable flood risk management that may be modified and applied in other metropolitan regions dealing with comparable issues by filling up the gaps in local government capacity to lessen the effects of flooding.
Additionally, assessing the causes and contributing factors of flash floods in Shah Alam, assessing the efficacy of present flood management techniques, and investigating community perceptions of flood risks are the objectives of this study. It aims to improve flood resilience by putting forth locally relevant, evidence-based solutions. Understanding community perceptions of flood hazards, assessing the efficacy of current flood management policies and procedures, determining the primary causes of flash floods in Shah Alam, and suggesting ways to lessen the effects of flooding in Shah Alam are all part of the research aims.
Thus, this study provided guidelines for flood risk management by the local government, especially by the Shah Alam municipality based on the local community interview and some literature analysis. Ultimately, this research provides crucial flood risk management recommendations specific to the Shah Alam municipality, highlighting the incorporation of community perspectives and literature-based analysis. The results emphasize the value of evidence-based tactics, community involvement, and preventative actions in reducing the danger of flooding. The municipality may improve resilience against future flood occurrences by coordinating local policy with community demands and professional advice. These recommendations provide a framework for adaptive and sustainable flood risk control techniques.
2. Study Area
The Shah Alam municipality, the study area, is the capital of Selangor state, Malaysia which is a part of the Petaling District and a small portion of the neighboring Klang District (Figure 1). Shah Alam became the capital of Selangor state in 1978 after Kuala Lumpur was incorporated into the Federal Territory of Malaysia in 1974. Shah Alam became the nation’s first planned city after Malaysia gained independence from Great Britain in 1957 (Shah Alam City Council, 2022). Ever since it was gazetted as the state capital in 1978, the 290.3 km2 Shah Alam is part of the Klang district located in the Petaling district of Selangor. Because of this recent expansion, the districts of Kuala Selangor and Selayang border Shah Alam to the north, the cities of Subang Jaya and Petaling Jaya to the east, the Klang District to the west, and the Kuala Langat District to the south. Furthermore, Kuala Lumpur and its environs are part of the Malaysian region known as the Klang Valley, which also includes Shah Alam as a major city. Shah Alam is also a river city and town in the state of Selangor because the Klang River flows through it on its westward path to the Malacca Strait (
Shah Alam, located in the Klang Valley, is mostly flat terrain, except for the northern part of the city, which is home to numerous prominent, high hills. On the map, Shah Alam and the adjacent areas of Selangor, Malaysia are included in the study area shown in red. District boundaries, including those of Hulu Selangor, Kuala Selangor, Gombak, Klang, Hulu Langat, Kuala Langat, Sepang, and Seremban, are indicated in green on the map. The area of choice implies an emphasis on urban and suburban settings, perhaps for studies about climate, environmental effects, or urban growth. Klang and Shah Alam are renowned for their high-density urban and industrial features, which could be a factor in the rising temperatures. Forest reserves and natural areas may offer information about ways to mitigate climate change. The disparity between less urbanized and more urbanized regions, such as Bentong and Hulu, Selangor, could provide useful information for comparison. Land use, industrial effect, and vegetation cover may all have a big impact on the results of this study if it has anything to do with urban heat islands.
According to the Shah Alam Local Plan 2035, the last estimation of land is during 2017 when major of the land in the Shah Alam City Council administrative area was used for transportation. This includes 6070.90 hectares, or 20.03% of the total area of Shah Alam (Table 2), which is taken up by major public transportation hubs like airports, commuter stations, and bus stops. The second-largest land use, with a share of 19.29%, is vacant land, which includes areas where abandoned projects and construction sites have been left unfinished. Housing areas come in at about 16.75%. In addition, industry occupied 3119.90 hectares, followed by forest at 2471.25 hectares, or 8.15% of Shah Alam’s total area. Malaysia’s Shah Alam has taken several steps to improve resilience against recurrent flooding and address flood control. The goal of the Shah Alam Sustainable Urban Drainage Master Plan (SAsud) is to reduce the danger of flooding by using sustainable urban drainage systems. The city council also approved 37 flood mitigation projects totalling RM115.3 million, which included infrastructure improvements like pump houses, flood retention walls, and better drainage systems. In addition to focusing on community-based tactics, Shah Alam involves locals in flood response and preparation activities. Together, these actions demonstrate a dedication to long-term, sustainable flood risk reduction.
3. Methods
3.1. Data Collection
This study identified the challenges in managing floods in Shah Alam, Malaysia, using primary and secondary data and information. Following the quadruple-helix multi-stakeholders model, the primary data were gathered through informal interviews with 20 informants. In this study, four main sectors (i.e., government, academia, business, and community/non-governmental organizations (NGO)) were interviewed that are significantly involved and have lots of experience related to disaster management.
Purposive sampling was used in these four sectors to select five informants to collect primary data ensuring that the study captured perspectives from key stakeholders with direct flood management experience. The selection criteria for informants included their involvement in disaster preparedness, response, or mitigation efforts, as well as their knowledge of past flood events in Shah Alam. This approach helped ensure that the data collected was relevant and informed by firsthand experiences. Several reputable agencies in the government sector were interviewed including the District Office, the first disaster emergency response team of Shah Alam City Council (PANTAS MBSA-Majlis Bandaraya Shah Alam), Selangor Water Management Authority (SWMA—Lembaga Urus Air Selangor (LUAS)), the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (JPS) Selangor, the Malaysia Civil Défense Force, and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Sustainability (NRES). Other than that, academics from several universities, including the University of Malaya (UM), MARA University of Technology (UITM), University of Putra Malaysia (UPM), and the National University of Malaysia (UKM), also participated as respondents to provide insights into disaster risk reduction, policy frameworks, and climate adaptation strategies.
To ensure the study considered diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, representatives from small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the business sector, and village leaders from flood-prone communities as well as NGOs from the communities/NGO sector were chosen to explore their preparedness and adaptation to flash flood disasters.
The interview questions in this study structured based on four main priorities of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 and Non-Economic Loss and Damage (NELD) criteria under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to ensure a comprehensive understanding of flood risk management. A total of 11 open-ended questions were developed to explore stakeholders’ perspectives on preparedness, response strategies, and policy effectiveness. Lastly, this study also received ethical approval from the UKM Research Ethics Committee following the reference number UKM PPI/111/8/JEP-2023-011 to interview the experts, ensuring that participants’ confidentiality and safety were maintained throughout the research process.
3.2. Data Analysis
Based on the four Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 [41] themes—(i) understanding disaster risk, (ii) enhancing disaster risk governance, (iii) investing in disaster risk reduction and preparedness, early warning, and (iv) rebuilding better after a disaster—the interview information was analyzed to provide a better framework of flood disaster management by Shah Alam City Council. The thematic analysis discovered common patterns among study participants and made it easier to theorize multiple examples [42]. The pertinent themes for additional discussion were identified by analyzing, categorizing, and appropriately coding the interview data for this study. The Taguette software tool was used to analyze qualitative data. With coding and text data retrieval capabilities, Taguette is a free and open-source qualitative research tool (UKM University Libraries, 2024). Taguette 1.4.1 is the version of this tool that is available under a BSD-3-Clause license. This tool has been operational since March 2019 [43]. With the aid of this tool, a collection of interview information transcripts was uploaded, a hierarchy of tags was established, and transcripts with tags and notes were arranged in the annotated sections to recall later on as well as to rearrange by the relevant themes. One of the examples of research that used this Taguette tool was by Rachel Hage [44].
3.3. Data Validation
Data validation is ensuring that the collected data is accurate and complete by verifying its quality and accuracy before processing and analysis. It is reasonable to communicate the requirements, automate the process, and open up new directions for process maintenance and research by formalizing the requirements that serve as the basis for this decision-making process. All 20 interview participants were contacted twice to verify the details and solicit their input on the findings. Overall, major of the participants are heavily involved and had massive influence and experience related to disaster management especially flash floods at Shah Alam. Coordination and inter-agency data sharing are two major issues in this study that require immediate attention for flood disaster management.
4. Results
The qualitative information based on the informal interviews was analyzed and arranged following the four main themes of the Sendai Framework for United Nations Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030). Therefore, the thematic analysis of the qualitative information following themes of UNDRR in this study focused on new guidelines for flood management by the local government, especially by the Shah Alam City Council, Malaysia (Table 3). The four priorities of action in the Sendai framework of DRR were the source of themes for the thematic analysis conducted in this study. By enhancing knowledge of disaster risk, governing disaster risk reduction, investing in and bolstering resilience, and preparing for recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction, the Sendai Framework redirected attention toward managing the fundamental drivers of disaster risk. The knowledge acquired from the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) is put into practice by UNDRR. The four priorities highlight the call for action rather than providing a comprehensive list of things to do. This means that national strategies adopted by Malaysia in 2020 would still be crucial because implementing the four priority areas might call for the creation and planning of additional specific measures at the local and national levels.
Given the significant change in emphasis on the risk inherent in the expected outcome and the resulting need to manage risk in and of itself, the thematic analysis of the first theme “understanding disaster risk” in its extent and genesis, including its drivers, is important. The Sendai Framework acknowledges that while knowledge must grow, partnerships are the cornerstone of disaster risk management because there is already a wealth of knowledge among stakeholders that must be managed and utilized well.
The thematic analysis provides advice on how to improve the international cooperation mechanisms for disaster risk reduction in the second theme, “disaster risk governance”. It specifically acknowledges the significance of the current regional and subregional strategies and plans and subtly suggests that their provisions be taken into consideration in future assessments and their continued implementation. Additionally, it expands upon the beneficial experience of the first voluntary peer reviews between nations as a crucial tool for regional and international collaboration, including transboundary collaboration. Cooperation between institutions and procedures is crucial for the effective use of pertinent international instruments. This method further demonstrates that relevant sector instruments of both legally and non-legally binding character should be interpreted and implemented, including programming and finance, using the Sendai Framework at Shah Alam, which is in line with the Malaysian Water Sector Transformation (WST2040). The next theme is “investing in resilience”, which is particularly dependent on efficient coordination and coherence in the formulation and implementation of sector policies and programs as well as the implementation of international instruments such as those concerning sustainable development, financing, and climate change and variability. Enhancing the social, cultural, health, and economic resilience of people, communities, countries, and their resources as well as the environment requires investing in structural and non-structural disaster risk reduction and prevention.
The fourth theme highlights the continuously increasing risk of disasters, which includes the increased exposure of people and property. This theme emphasizes the need to improve disaster preparedness for response, acting in advance, integrating disaster risk reduction into response preparedness, and ensuring that all necessary resources are available for effective response and recovery at all levels when combined with the knowledge gained from prior disasters. Encouraging women and individuals with disabilities to assume leadership roles in public and promote response, rehabilitation, and reconstruction strategies that are gender-equitable and universally accessible is crucial. The recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction phases provide a crucial opportunity to rebuild, including by incorporating disaster risk reduction into development strategies that increase a nation’s and a community’s resilience to events.
Flood risk management in Malaysia has a defined framework regarding the division of labor based on the expertise of each respective agency, as per MKN Directive 20. The inclusion of other significant stakeholders in the team, such as those from the business sector, academia, the university, the NGO, and community leaders, should greatly aid in, increasing their presence, and influence regarding flood management in Malaysia. This can be related to and support SDG 17 of the United Nations, which is partnership-focused. Goals are reached through collaborations between public and private entities and governments. All of our goals can be accomplished when all of us work together to pursue them. Nonetheless, certain challenges persist in the endeavor to establish a methodical and structured approach to disaster management across multiple stakeholders, particularly in the context of district-level disaster management.
One of the most important aspects of flood risk management is good communication. One of the biggest mistakes made when responding to floods has been noted as the absence of a well-defined communication plan [45]. The main hindrance to the effective management of flood disasters in Shah Alam is the absence of coordination among agencies. There are several restrictions and obstacles resulting from less successful collaboration connections amongst current agencies. While on the surface all the agencies involved can work together professionally and effectively, there are still barriers because of differences in workplace cultures and internal procedures that contribute to the difficulty of managing this flood disaster more effectively. Furthermore, issues have arisen involving multiple agencies and officers of varying ranks and positions, which makes it challenging to foster effective collaboration. This claim is corroborated by a Mabahwi study from 2021, which claims that some of the involved agencies typically have higher ranks in the uniform bodies and that this issue arises because of “ranking” in the uniform units. This issue should primarily focus on SDG 17, which is related to partnership for the goals. To ensure effective cooperation, particularly when handling emergencies, strong relationships between representatives from various departments are essential. In particular, when it comes to disasters that can happen at any time of day or night, good relationships between staff members from various agencies can foster tolerance, increase the spirit of cooperation, and help create more effective disaster management. A few examples of situations that can be managed are requests to borrow resources from other organizations, such as food assistance and medication, for logistical needs. It is critical to validate that victims of tragedies can receive aid as soon as possible.
This weakness can also be identified, according to the interview with the village head’s representative, using the representative’s joint management with the Shah Alam City Council (MBSA), and the district office (PBT) in the area. This is allegedly the case due to ongoing cooperation shortcomings, as some members of the Village Community Management Council (MPKK) report having trouble communicating with the appropriate PBT officials. This inadvertently slows down and impedes the work the MPKK level is trying to accomplish, particularly in emergencies when they desperately need assistance during flood events. The village chief eventually had to take the initiative after receiving numerous reports and assisting in relocating the villagers to a safer location while they awaited assistance from the authorities.
The agency and other stakeholders, including those in the community, academia, and business, must also establish clear lines of communication and cooperation. This is said to be the case because different parties working together will facilitate the initiation of various disaster management initiatives. When some parties choose to act independently without consulting the appropriate authorities, issues can arise. The Civil Defence Force (APM) and the MPKK are among the organizations that report issues about non-governmental organizations (NGOs), which frequently take action without notifying the authorities. Aid for food and equipment provided without oversight makes it difficult to provide large-scale assistance to all victims. It also occasionally leads to waste, which creates opportunities for careless individuals to take advantage of the assistance for their gain. Five categories are used to categorize the flood danger zone: very-low-risk (32.38%), low-risk (22.25%), moderate-risk (23.17%), high-risk (18.87%), and very-high-risk (3.33%). Low-risk zones (RM 2091), moderate-risk areas (RM 2343), and high-risk areas (RM 2728) are the economic losses determined by the data collected for this study. The Seksyen 36, 18, 17, and the majority of the southern portion of Shah Alam, Malaysia, are the locations of past flood episodes (Figure 2).
Programs or activities that involve all parties, like flood drills, can also foster cooperation and communication between government agencies and other stakeholders. Up until now, only rescue agencies and representatives from each community, arranged through the village head, have been involved in flood training. No history of mass participation in flood drills exists to date. This is crucial because community-level flood training sessions are still required to guarantee that all locals are aware of what to do in an emergency. Community housing areas should have a clear emergency plan, just like buildings such as schools do, so that everyone in the community is aware of what to do in an emergency. The Department of Drainage and Irrigation (JPS) also faces challenges, the main one being the need to use the location close to a river or drainage area. There are not enough space constraints to allow the JPS to maintain and upgrade the drainage system throughout the Shah Alam region. According to reports, this is the case because the JPS is unable to implement initiatives meant to deepen or expand the water drainage area due to the density of some residential or development areas. Furthermore, JPS faces administrative obstacles since drainage improvement projects require specific coordination with other entities, such as the Public Works Department (JKR), which must also secure support to move utility infrastructure, such as roads or electricity cables, before initiating drainage improvement projects.
Regular maintenance is also essential to ensuring that the facilities and infrastructure already in place can be fully utilized; particularly during seasons when flooding is a major concern. This is stated to be the case because there is still a maintenance frequency shortfall in the current infrastructure, which frequently leads to the inability to use the infrastructure in times of emergency, especially in the event of a disaster. The flood reservoir pond is already filled with water even in favorable weather, and the pond’s natural vegetation may reduce the amount of water that can be held during a flood. As an example, the flood catchment pond near Section 13 is not in optimal condition. When performing maintenance on the current drainage system, one of the things to consider is sedimentation. In the drainage system, sediment carried by water currents will quickly build up and obstruct the flow of water. Additionally, sediment raises the possibility of water overflow, particularly during periods of intense rainfall, by lowering the amount of water the drainage system can hold. The likelihood of the drainage system being clogged can be further increased by the presence of foreign objects, such as trash thrown by neighbors or fallen tree leaves in the drainage system.
One of the many reasons for Shah Alam’s shortcomings in flood disaster management is the absence of personnel and resources during times of crisis. At the district-disaster-management level, where the agencies involved lack substantial funding to utilize for asset purchases, this is occurring on a larger scale. Any asset purchase must also go through a rigorous evaluation process to determine its value and efficacy. Additionally, district-level agencies must be under pressure to complete tasks during emergencies, which will force them to make adjustments by utilizing their current equipment. However, the significant flood that happened in Shah Alam in December 2021 should not be used as a standard by rescue organizations because it was an exceptional occurrence with 380 mm of rain, more than twice as much as the highest amount of rainfall ever recorded previously, which was about 180 mm. According to reports from parties and organizations under disaster management, they are aware of early warning signs of heavy rainfall and the possibility of flooding. However, during the December 2021 flood tragedy, the magnitude of the disaster reached a critical point, and district-level disaster management was unable to handle and bear such a large-scale disaster without anticipating assistance from the state and federal levels.
To improve the findings conversation in the context of Shah Alam, Malaysia, it is essential to offer a more thorough examination of important subjects including resilience building, governance, and disaster risk understanding. Going further with governance would entail examining how Shah Alam’s local government has managed floods and the part that community involvement plays in flood readiness. Given the unique geographic and urban difficulties of Shah Alam, resilience building could be linked to the government’s and local organizations’ attempts to develop more robust infrastructure and response systems. Incorporating particular case studies, such as the flash flood in Shah Alam in 2021, would demonstrate how the region’s current flood control techniques were demonstrated. For example, the flood’s quick escalation as a result of heavy rainfall and poor drainage may highlight the need for improved infrastructure, such as elevated drainage systems and retention ponds, which might be included in the suggested framework. The framework might also discuss how crucial community involvement and awareness are to reducing the likelihood of future floods. The study may demonstrate how the suggested architecture could directly address Shah Alam’s problems, enhance governance, and guarantee greater resilience to flooding disasters in the future by analyzing these components.
5. Discussion
This study proposes a flood management framework to be implemented in Malaysia at all levels, especially at the district level (Figure 3). This proposed framework for flood management was created to improve communication and coordination problems as well as weaknesses in terms of sharing information and data across various agencies involved in disaster management in Malaysia, especially at the Shah Alam City Council. The formation of this proposal framework ensures disaster management at the lowest level, which is at the district level, can be carried out in a transparent and planned manner while increasing the effectiveness of disaster management. The framework also aims to enhance the efficiency of response efforts during flood events by streamlining communication and coordination between relevant agencies. By implementing this framework, it is hoped that the impact of floods in Shah Alam can be minimized and communities can be better prepared for future disasters [47]. The reorganization of this committee by adding the presence of representatives from NADMA also helps in terms of understanding the Security Council Directive No. 20, which is deemed to still have weaknesses in understanding among related agencies at central, state, district, statutory, and private bodies [48].
To improve communication and coordination, the disaster management committee at the district level, led by the district officer as the chairperson of the committee at the district level requires the presence of a representative from the NADMA to act as a monitor of the entire disaster management committee at the district level. This is because NADMA’s presence at the local level helps ensure that every agency can cooperate in operations when a disaster occurs. The presence of NADMA further strengthens the disaster management mechanism at the district and community level pending a new act or executive order to give legal authority to certain departments in carrying out their functions to monitor disaster management at the district level [49]. This cross-agency committee needs a special party that focuses on disaster management like NADMA. The presence of NADMA representatives also provides great influence to facilitate cooperation from various parties, especially involving stakeholders in their respective areas such as community leaders. This gives a great advantage to disaster management at the district level, which requires the cooperation of various parties to strengthen the existing management. Additionally, the NADMA representative can also provide valuable expertise and resources to support the district-level disaster management committee in their response efforts [50].
Flood early warning systems produce effective and timely danger warnings essential for lowering flood risk. Research and practical application have acknowledged the significance of incorporating local vulnerable communities in the planning, execution, and maintenance of these systems [51]. Initiated and run by the communities themselves, community-based flood early warning systems can overlook corresponding institutional flood risk management activities in the same area, whether on purpose or not. This can result in contradicting warnings during flood events [52]. The results demonstrate that the integration of monitoring, forecasting, and response capabilities can improve the pillars of these capabilities, especially through the use of state-of-the-art monitoring technologies (low-cost water level sensors) and citizen science initiatives (increasing the number of observers upstream to improve the redundancy for accurate warnings) [53]. Low-income communities living in informal settlements are among the vulnerable groups in Indonesia that suffer the effects. Every year, flooding costs the local economy USD 500 million and affects more than 1 million people. Recent measures, however, have reduced peak flood levels by 15% and the length of floods in impacted areas by 20%. Additionally, community resilience has improved by a 20% increase in community response activities and a 25% increase in flood insurance coverage [54].
In January 2022, the former prime minister declared that this was one of the primary issues that needed to be resolved immediately for the country’s disaster management [55]. This weakness is critical because it can lead to misunderstandings among agencies that lead to inefficiencies in work. This failure leads to failure in ensuring that management runs more smoothly and allows a worse disaster scenario to occur [56]. Therefore, all levels of government and relevant bodies must enhance communication and collaboration efforts to ensure a more coordinated response during times of crisis. In addition, the presence of NADMA representatives at district-level disaster management also helps to improve the quality of information management across different agencies. Information management is a very important aspect of disaster management to allow the responsible party to act appropriately according to the current situation. This is said to be so because the authorities are very dependent on accurate and fast dynamic information from the field to ensure that all the necessary assets and expertise can be mobilized quickly and in an orderly manner to overcome problems that arise. Management at the district level is highly dependent on the existing system owned by each agency involved. Constraints in the allocation of money and assets force disaster management at the district level to cooperate and share information using existing systems [22,48]. The presence of NADMA can monitor and see for itself the disaster management scenario at the district level, especially during times of emergency such as when there is a flood phenomenon, and ensure that each party is actively involved and that no party takes advantage of the moment when the emergency occurs. NADMA representatives at the district level can also report directly to NADMA at the central level if there are any critical deficiencies, such as inadequate assets and staff to assist management [20].
Flooding affects economics and society significantly on a global scale. Floods are the most widespread natural disaster, affecting millions of people every year, according to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction and the World Meteorological Organization [38,57]. The increased frequency and severity of flooding events that are partly linked to the interaction between urbanization and climate change, highlight the phenomenon’s global prevalence [58,59]. Worldwide populations are increasingly susceptible due to the rising frequency of floods, often exacerbated by altered precipitation patterns brought on by climate change and rising sea levels. High-density urban areas and coastal locations are more susceptible to the damaging impacts of floods. Furthermore, areas with lower socioeconomic status are typically the ones that suffer the most from floods, which perpetuates the cycle of inequality and poverty. Approximately 2.3 billion people were affected by floods between 1995 and 2015, accounting for over 47% of all weather-related disasters globally [37].
Future flare-ups may also result from modifications to the urban microclimate brought about by the impacts of climate change on a worldwide scale [60]. To facilitate sustainable urban stormwater management and mitigate the consequences of floods brought on by climate change, low-impact development (LID) initiatives and conventional urban stormwater management systems can be employed. The degree of change in urban areas may result from localized urban climate variability and global warming-induced climate change. These factors can increase the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall, which can cause urban areas to flood. Using LIDs might end up being a cost-effective decision [61]. Apart from mitigating the considerable fluctuations in flood peaks and potentially lessening the risk of flooding, LIDs can be employed as an economically viable supplement to a conventional urban stormwater management system. At varying rainfall intensities, some LID types are easier to install and often more successful in preventing urban floods.
When supporting cities globally in identifying and bringing to light socio-spatial imbalances that are “hidden” in flood resilience plans, the categories provided in this study are also a helpful place to start [62]. They should, however, be further modified to account for location-specific factors such as cultural identities, urban green spaces and natural regions, and informal settlements. For instance, since they may affect vulnerabilities (like housing and health) and capacity (like social capital and networks), cities with informal settlements should have particular metrics for each of these categories. This study’s conclusions can also be advantageous for international policy and practice. Because of the growing risks of floods brought on by heavy rainfall globally, international initiatives are pushing towns to implement measures to improve their catastrophic resilience, such as flood resilience. To understand, identify, and engage with the potential socio-spatial inequities mentioned in this work, several international initiatives support the research of catastrophe resilience [63]. This will help to raise issues regarding the underlying causes of flood damage and lead to more dynamic interpretations of flood resistance that will improve the state of society.
6. Possible Tools and Technology Used for Flood Management
For Shah Alam, a comprehensive flood management plan must prioritize both structural and non-structural solutions. River channelization, flood barriers, retention ponds, and better drainage systems are examples of structural methods. For surplus water flow to be efficiently controlled and redirected, these engineering solutions are crucial. Non-structural interventions include public awareness campaigns, flood danger mapping, early warning systems, and land-use planning. Through readiness and proactive measures, these programs seek to reduce the risk of flooding.
Another essential component of the framework for flood management is community participation. Flood risk assessment, decision-making, and preparedness initiatives should engage local residents. Workshops and educational initiatives can assist communities become more aware of the risks of flooding and provide them with the skills and information they need to react appropriately when it happens. Providing resources and support networks to enable communities to bounce back quickly after a disaster is another aspect of building resilient communities.
In Shah Alam, incorporating land use and land planning initiatives into flood control plans is crucial for reducing flood hazards, especially in light of the city’s fast development and climate change. Increased impermeable surfaces brought about by urbanization have decreased natural water absorption and increased surface runoff. Green infrastructure, such as rain gardens, urban forests, and permeable pavements, can be incorporated into land use design to enhance infiltration. Zoning laws should promote low-density zoning where it is required and limit growth in flood-prone areas. New construction can be kept from making flood conditions worse by using floodplain zoning. Incorporating sustainable drainage and retention systems, like retention ponds and wetlands, can also aid with stormwater management by serving as natural buffers and lowering peak flood levels.
To mitigate flooding, mixed land use and the incorporation of green spaces into urban planning are essential. Tree-lined roadways, parks, and green roofs improve soil absorption and lower runoff, which improves water management. To build a thorough flood management strategy, these tactics should be used in conjunction with the drainage systems and river embankments that are already in place. Long-term resilience is ensured by integrating land use and planning strategies, which lower flood risks, enhance water retention, and foster sustainability. With careful urban planning, Shah Alam’s overall environmental quality can be improved and its resilience to climate-driven flooding increased.
Flood management techniques must also incorporate environmental sustainability. Flood impacts can be lessened by preserving and rehabilitating wetlands, green spaces, and natural floodplains because they improve natural water absorption and reduce surface runoff. Permeable pavements, green roofs, and rain gardens are examples of green infrastructure solutions that can be implemented to enhance conventional engineering techniques. Moreover, the flood management framework should be based on data-driven decision-making. Flood risk prediction and mitigation can be greatly enhanced by the use of geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing technology, and real-time hydrological monitoring. During catastrophic weather events, authorities can take preventative measures by investing in sophisticated flood modeling and forecasting techniques.
The following are some potential instruments and technologies for flood control in Shah Alam:
Real-time flood monitoring systems: sensors and Internet of Things gadgets placed in strategic areas to deliver real-time information on rainfall and water levels.
Flood-prone locations can be mapped and analyzed using geographic information systems (GIS) to improve planning and response.
Remote sensing technologies: satellite pictures to track flood patterns and changes in land use.
Early warning systems: Flood warnings are communicated to the public via automated notifications.
AI-powered drainage devices known as “smart drainage systems” maximize water flow during intense precipitation.
Advanced software is used in data analytics and predictive modeling to forecast flood hazards and create mitigation plans.
Applications for mobile devices: apps for emergency response, community involvement, and real-time updates during flood occurrences.
Platforms based on the cloud: centralized solutions for data exchange and stakeholder response coordination.
In summary, an integrated strategy that strikes a balance between community engagement, infrastructure development, environmental stewardship, and efficient governance is needed for Shah Alam’s flood management system. A more resilient and flood-ready city can be created by the local government by implementing a multidisciplinary approach and cultivating solid relationships among stakeholders. Proactive steps will guarantee sustainable flood management and protect the long-term welfare of Shah Alam’s citizens and property when paired with ongoing monitoring, assessment, and adaptation.
7. Local and Global Impact
The Collaboration between international organizations and governmental entities is necessary to build an efficient flood management framework in Shah Alam, Malaysia, which has local and global ramifications and substantial societal applicability. Flood concerns have been addressed at the national and local levels by the Malaysian government through the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) [64] and the Shah Alam City Council (MBSA—
The foundation for flood management in Shah Alam has been further reinforced by international organizations through funding, technical assistance, and policy coordination. Malaysia has been guided by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to implement international best practices under the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) [66], which emphasizes community resilience and sustainable initiatives. Smart water management technologies and flood-resilient infrastructure have been developed with financial and technical help from organizations such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Global accords like the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially Goals 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) and 13 (Climate Action), are in line with these initiatives. The adoption of nature-based solutions (NBS) and integrated flood management (IFM) by local authorities to enhance urban resilience has been made possible by international collaborations that have facilitated knowledge-sharing platforms [67].
These programs have had significant social effects on the Shah Alam population locally. The health hazards connected to standing water and waterborne illnesses have been greatly decreased by improved drainage systems, retention ponds, and flood barriers. By minimizing financial damages from property damage and business interruptions, the household and commercial sectors have been safeguarded. Training initiatives and public awareness campaigns have enabled communities to take preventative action, promoting a readiness and resilience culture. With fewer disturbances to daily life, education, and transit, Shah Alam people live in a more stable and safer urban environment.
Globally, Shah Alam is a useful example of cities with comparable flood hazards [47]. For urban designers around the world, its use of NbSs and sustainable urban drainage systems provides reproducible tactics. The city’s conformity to international frameworks such as the Paris Agreement, SDGs, and Sendai Framework demonstrates its dedication to catastrophe resilience and global sustainability objectives. Furthermore, international agencies promote collaborations and knowledge-sharing platforms that guarantee Shah Alam’s experiences contribute to global discussions on catastrophe risk reduction and climate adaptation. Shah Alam not only increases its resilience but also serves as a model for other cities looking to implement sustainable flood management strategies by coordinating local legislation with international best practices and encouraging active community involvement [68]. The flood management framework in Shah Alam essentially shows how governments, international organizations, and local people can work together to effectively address one of the most important urban issues of our day.
Global frameworks like the Sendai Framework offer potential as well as obstacles when applied to Malaysia’s unique policy environment, such as MKN Directive 20. One difficulty is the structural and cultural disparities between Malaysia’s governance systems and international frameworks. Global frameworks promote an inclusive, multi-stakeholder approach; however, Malaysia’s policies could be more centralized, making the integration of these frameworks more difficult. Furthermore, the Sendai Framework’s emphasis on proactive disaster risk reduction may not be compatible with MKN Directive 20’s more reactive, disaster-response-driven strategy.
Resource restrictions present another difficulty, since Malaysia might not have enough money to deploy the advanced systems and technologies described in the Sendai Framework. There are, nevertheless, also many chances. By offering a road map for improving Malaysia’s disaster management regulations, the Sendai Framework can encourage a change to a more proactive strategy that emphasizes readiness and prevention. Furthermore, by adopting the framework’s focus on community-based disaster risk management, Malaysia might enhance grassroots resilience and local involvement. Ultimately, using the Sendai Framework could strengthen Malaysia’s disaster response and recovery systems, increase capacity building, and foster better collaboration between stakeholders.
8. Conclusions
The suggested flood management framework provides a focused and integrated strategy that is appropriate for local needs. It is based on the UNDRR’s priority activities for Malaysia. It places a strong emphasis on community resilience, preventative actions, and flexible tactics to successfully guard against the dangers of both man-made and natural disasters locally. This strategy framework ensures a resilient and adaptable city in the face of tragedy by integrating preventative measures, responsive procedures, and community participation in Shah Alam. This framework was created and is being used in large part to the cooperative efforts of government agencies, local governments, and community groups. The focus on early warning systems, efficient routes for communication, and clear evacuation plans shows a dedication to reducing the damage that disasters bring to infrastructure and human lives. Additionally, Shah Alam City’s readiness and response capabilities are improved by the integration of cutting-edge technology like predictive analytics and real-time monitoring. The framework emphasizes the significance of long-term resilience building through sustainable urban design and infrastructure development in addition to its focus on rapid response and recovery. Shah Alam’s residents can actively participate in disaster preparedness and promote a safety culture through public awareness campaigns and educational initiatives. The Shah Alam disaster management system essentially acts as a template for other areas, highlighting the significance of cooperation, ingenuity, and community engagement in building a more secure and resilient urban environment. AI-driven flood forecasting, smart drainage systems, and sustainable urban drainage options like bioswales and green roofs should all be incorporated into Shah Alam’s future flood risk management. Increasing stormwater retention infrastructure, repairing wetlands, and fortifying land use regulations would all improve resilience. Infrastructure improvements must be guided by climate adaptation techniques to endure harsh weather. For long-term flood preparedness, community involvement and public knowledge are essential. To achieve effective flood mitigation, a combination of nature-based solutions, technology, and policy enforcement will be used.
Conceptualization, H.S.R., M.F.A., B.H. and M.B.M.; methodology, H.S.R., M.F.A., B.H., N.R., C.K.L. and M.B.M.; software, H.S.R., M.F.A. and B.H.; validation, H.S.R., M.F.A., B.H., N.R., M.B.M., M.S. and C.B.P.; formal analysis, M.F.A. and B.H.; investigation, H.S.R., M.F.A., B.H. and M.B.M.; resources, B.H., M.S. and M.F.A.; data curation H.S.R., M.F.A., B.H., C.K.L. and M.B.M.; writing—original draft preparation, H.S.R., M.F.A., B.H., N.R., M.B.M., C.K.L., M.S., F.A. and C.B.P.; writing—review and editing, H.S.R., M.F.A., B.H., N.R., M.B.M., C.K.L., M.S., F.A. and C.B.P.; visualization, M.F.A., B.H. and M.S.; supervision, M.F.A.; project administration, B.H. and M.S.; funding acquisition, M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The corresponding author will supply data upon request.
The authors extend their appreciation to Abdullah Alrushaid Chair for Earth Science Remote Sensing Research at King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia for funding this research publication. The author also would like to thank all the respondents involved in the interview for their ideas and feedback on this study.
Author Miklas Scholz was employed by the companies Kunststoff-Technik Adams and Nexus by Sweden. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
| APM | Civil defense force |
| ADB | Asian Development Bank |
| DID | Department of Irrigation and Drainage |
| CBDRM | Community-based disaster risk management |
| FDM | Flood disaster management |
| GIS | Geographic information systems |
| HFA | Hyogo Framework for Action |
| JPS | Jabatan Pengairan Dan Saliran |
| JKR | Public Works Department |
| LUAS | Lembaga Urus Air Selangor |
| LID | Low-impact development |
| NADNA | National Disaster Management Agency |
| NGO | Non-governmental organization |
| NRES | Natural resources and environmental sustainability |
| NbS | Natural-based solutions |
| MKN | National Security Council |
| MBSA | Majlis Bandaraya Shah Alam (Shah Alam City Council) |
| PBT | Pihak Berkuasa Tempatan (district office) |
| SAsud | Shah Alam Sustainable Urban Drainage Master Plan |
| SDG | Sustainable Development Goal |
| SWMA | Selangor Water Management Authority |
| UM | University of Malaya |
| UPM | University of Putra Malaysia |
| UNDRR | United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction |
| UKM | National University of Malaysia |
| UITM | MARA University of Technology |
| UNDP | United Nations Development Programme |
| MPKK | Village Community Management Council |
| WST | Water Sector Transformation |
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
![View Image - Figure 1. Shah Alam municipality boundary area [40].](https://media.proquest.com/media/hms/THUM/2/arijb?_a=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%2BgIBWYIDA1dlYooDHENJRDoyMDI1MDcxMzE0MzgxOTUzNzozNTM0OTI%3D&_s=Rvan6Dpaq%2B4sdqV4iUsjP99lItw%3D "View Image - Figure 1. Shah Alam municipality boundary area [40].")
![View Image - Figure 2. Flood risk zone of the Shah Alam based on the current study [46].](https://media.proquest.com/media/hms/THUM/4/arijb?_a=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%2BgIBWYIDA1dlYooDHENJRDoyMDI1MDcxMzE0MzgxOTUzNzozNTM0OTI%3D&_s=c8EY4oGw9B13ci8aeCPXUzTC2d0%3D "View Image - Figure 2. Flood risk zone of the Shah Alam based on the current study [46].")
Flood event history in the Shah Alam area in 2022 (Shah Alam Flood Annual Report 2022).
| No. | Date | Place/Area Affected | Maximum Flood Depth (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 22-12-2022 | Jalan Anggerik Tania, Perumahan Jalan Sungai Merbau Seksyen 32, Taman Greenvill | 0.1–0.5 |
| 2 | 02-12-2022 | Kampung Bukit Naga Seksyen 34 | 0.1–0.5 |
| 3 | 17-11-2022 | Kampung Baru HICOM (Jalan Bunga Tanjung 2A) Kanpung Bukit Lanchong (Jalan Ikan Seluang, Jalan Harun, Jalan Ikan Puyu, Lorong Ikan Keli 2, 3 dan 4) | 0.5 |
| 4 | 08-11-2022 | Taman Sri Muda (Jalan Nyaman 25/20), Taman Sri Muda (Jalan Makmur 25/64), Taman Bukit Kemuning, Kampung Bukit Naga Seksyen 34 (Jalan Klinik, Jalan Batu 6 dan Jalan Bukit Naga), Taman Maznah, Taman Sri Wangi | 0.1–0.3 |
| 5 | 20-08-2022 | Taman Sri, Muda, Jalan Masyur 25/50, Taman Sri Muda, Jalan Tokoh 25/28, Taman Sri Muda, Jalann Makmur 25/64 | 0.1–0.3 |
| 6 | 16-03-2022 | Kampung Melayu Subang (Sg Pelumut dan Sg Pelempas)–Jalan Jati | 0.3 |
| 7 | 07-03-2022 | Kampung Padang Jawa, Taman Desa Kemuning, Jalan Batu Bata, Klang Kampung Bukit Lanchong | 0.1–0.3 |
| 8 | 22-02-2022 | Kampung Paya Jaras Hilir | 0.6–1.0 |
| 9 | 24-01-2022 | Sekitar Taman Sri Muda | 0.1–0.2 |
Main land use in the Shah Alam area in 2012 and 2017 (Shah Alam Draft Local Plan 2035 and Shah Alam City Council, 2012).
| Land Use | 2012 | 2017 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Size (Hectare) | (%) | Size (Hectare) | (%) | |
| Residential | 9911.22 | 34.14 | 5076.92 | 16.75 |
| Commercial | 1140.36 | 3.92 | 764.28 | 2.52 |
| Industrial | 3713.21 | 12.79 | 3119.90 | 10.29 |
| Institution and Public Facility | 2555.36 | 8.8 | 2087.63 | 6.89 |
| Infrastructure and Utility | 1450.85 | 4.99 | 1378.76 | 4.55 |
| Transportation | 4741.84 | 16.33 | 6070.90 | 20.03 |
| Open Space and Recreation Area | 2213.27 | 7.62 | 1894.02 | 6.25 |
| Agriculture | 94.14 | 0.32 | 757 | 2.5 |
| Forest | 2089.77 | 7.19 | 2471.25 | 8.15 |
| Water Body | 782.34 | 2.69 | 842.77 | 2.78 |
| Vacant Area | 5847.29 | 19.29 | ||
| Mixed Use Development | 337.64 | 1.16 | ||
| Total | 29,030.00 | 100 | 30,310.72 | 100 |
Thematic analysis of interview information for disaster management in Malaysia.
| Theme | Keyword | Summarized Statement of Interviewee | Summarized Statement Cross-Checked with Interviewee to Validate Solution |
|---|---|---|---|
| Priority 1. Understanding disaster risk | Communication and data sharing |
| Create a coordinated data-sharing system across agencies at the district, state, and federal levels. |
| |||
| Priority 2. Strengthening Disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk | Limited authorities |
| Introducing a special disaster management act focusing on NADMA’s involvement at the District and state levels. |
| |||
| |||
| |||
| Poor collaboration/coordination |
| ||
| |||
| |||
| Priority 3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience | Inadequate preparedness |
| Improve current asset requirements especially for agencies actively involved in rescue work. |
| |||
| |||
| |||
| Natural based solution |
| Adopting a new technique that is environmentally friendly and does not require large allocations to mitigate the flood problem. | |
| Priority 4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction | Non-structural mitigation measures | Investing to enhance public awareness and use of better technologies. | |
| Poor management |
| Enforcing work reports focusing on the maintenance of the facilities. | |
| |||
| |||
|
References
1. Bin Mokhtar, M.; Ahmed, M.F. Managing a Road as a River to Mitigate the Impact of Urban Flash Floods. J. Flood Risk Manag.; 2022; 15, 1. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12849]
2. Rosmadi, H.S.; Ahmed, M.F.; Bin Mokhtar, M.; Lim, C.K. Reviewing Challenges of Flood Risk Management in Malaysia. Water; 2023; 15, 2390. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w15132390]
3. Ahmed, M.F.; Halder, B.; Juneng, L.; Bin Mokhtar, M.; Leeonis, A.N. Flood Potential and near Real-Time Inundation Analysis through Geospatial Approaches in Shah Alam, Malaysia. Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk; 2024; 15, 2361807. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2024.2361807]
4. Selamat, S.N.; Abd Majid, N.; Mohd Taib, A.; Taha, M.R.; Osman, A. The Spatial Relationship between Landslide and Land Use Activities in Langat River Basin: A Case Study. Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A/B/C; 2023; 129, 103289. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103289]
5. Majid, N.A.; Zulkafli, S.A.; Zakaria, S.Z.S.; Razman, M.R.; Ahmed, M.F. Spatial Pattern Analysis on Landslide Incidents in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Ecol. Environ. Conserv.; 2022; 28, pp. 1624-1627. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.53550/EEC.2022.v28i03.072]
6. Zulkafli, S.A.; Abd Majid, N.; Rainis, R. Spatial Analysis on the Variances of Landslide Factors Using Geographically Weighted Logistic Regression in Penang Island, Malaysia. Sustainability; 2023; 15, 852. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su15010852]
7. Norizan, N.Z.A.; Hassan, N.; Yusoff, M.M. Strengthening Flood Resilient Development in Malaysia through Integration of Flood Risk Reduction Measures in Local Plans. Land Use Policy; 2021; 102, 105178. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105178]
8. Hwang, M.Y. Flood Preparedness, Response and Recovery of Flood Affected Business Owners in Shah Alam in 2021. Ph.D Thesis; Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman: Kampar, Malaysia, 2022.
9. Anon Bah Besar Penutup. 2021; Available online: https://www.bharian.com.my/berita/nasional/2021/12/905583/bah-besar-penutup-2021 (accessed on 24 November 2024).
10. Azizah, M.N. Tak Sangka Banjir Besar Dipercayai Antara Punca Ramai Terperangkap. 2021; Available online: https://www.bharian.com.my/berita/nasional/2021/12/902208/tak-sangka-banjir-besar-dipercayai-antara-punca-ramai-terperangkap (accessed on 25 November 2024).
11. Bin-Ismail, M. Community Response to Flood Disaster: A Case Study of Flooding in Penang, Malaysia. Ph.D. Thesis; Durham University: Durham, UK, 2022.
12. Zulkifli, A.M. Behind the Frequent Floods in Shah Alam; University of Jambi: Jambi, Indonesia, 2021.
13. Ali, A.J.M. Banjir Taman Sri Muda Di Luar Kawalan Manusia-Kerajaan. 2022; Available online: https://www.bharian.com.my/berita/nasional/2022/11/1024208/banjir-taman-sri-muda-di-luar-kawalan-manusia-kerajaan (accessed on 25 November 2024).
14. Doswell, C.A., III. Hydrology, Floods and Droughts. Flooding. 2015; Available online: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123822253001511?via%3Dihub (accessed on 25 November 2024).
15. Abdullah, R. Sampai Bila Kami Nak Hadap Banjir Kilat Ini-Penduduk Taman Setia Warisan. 2022; Available online: https://www.astroawani.com/berita-malaysia/sampai-bila-kami-nak-hadap-banjir-kilat-ini-penduduk-taman-setia-warisan-390856 (accessed on 25 November 2024).
16. Ahmadun, F.-R.; Wong, M.M.R.; Mat Said, A. Consequences of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami in Malaysia. Saf. Sci.; 2020; 121, pp. 619-631. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2019.05.016]
17. Zahari, R.K.; Ariffin, R.N.R.; Asmawi, M.Z.; Ibrahim, A.N. Impacts of the 2004 Tsunami: Preparedness of the Malaysian Coastal Communities. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci.; 2013; 105, pp. 569-576. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.11.060]
18. Ahmed, M.F.; Bin Mokhtar, M.; Alam, L. Factors Influencing People’s Willingness to Participate in Sustainable Water Resources Management in Malaysia. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud.; 2020; 31, 100737. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2020.100737]
19. Bhuiyan, T.R.; Er, A.C.; Muhamad, N.; Pereira, J.J. Evaluating the Cumulative Costs of Small-Scale Flash Floods in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. J. Hydrol.; 2022; 612, 128181. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.128181]
20. Sa’adi, Z.; Ramli, M.W.A.; Tajuddin, W.A.N.W.A.; Arman, N.Z.; Hassan, C.H.C.; Ramzan, M.A.; Yusop, Z.; Alias, N.E. Evaluating Flood Early Warning System and Public Preparedness and Knowledge in Urban and Semi-Urban Areas of Johor, Malaysia: Challenges and Opportunities. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct.; 2024; 113, 104870. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104870]
21. Hamid, A.I.A.; Din, A.H.M.; Hwang, C.; Khalid, N.F.; Tugi, A.; Omar, K.M. Contemporary Sea Level Rise Rates around Malaysia: Altimeter Data Optimization for Assessing Coastal Impact. J. Asian Earth Sci.; 2018; 166, pp. 247-259. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.07.034]
22. Chan, N.W. Impacts of Disasters and Disaster Risk Management in Malaysia: The Case of Floods. Resilience and Recovery in Asian Disasters: Community Ties, Market Mechanisms, and Governance; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2014; pp. 239-265.
23. Farid Ahmed, M.; Bin Mokhtar, M.; Lim, C.K.; Suza, I.A.B.C.; Ayob, K.A.K.; Khirotdin, R.P.K.; Majid, N.A. Integrated River Basin Management for Sustainable Development: Time for Stronger Action. Water; 2023; 15, 2497. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w15132497]
24. Rahman, B.A. Issues of Disaster Management Preparedness: A Case Study of Directive 20 of National Security Council Malaysia. Int. J. Bus. Soc. Sci.; 2012; 3, pp. 85-92.
25. Masud, M.M.; Sackor, A.S.; Ferdous Alam, A.S.A.; Al-Amin, A.Q.; Abdul Ghani, A.B. Community Responses to Flood Risk Management–An Empirical Investigation of the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Malaysia. Mar. Policy; 2018; 97, pp. 119-126. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.08.027]
26. Krauss, S.E.; Zeldin, S.; Abdullah, H.; Ortega, A.; Ali, Z.; Ismail, I.A.; Ariffin, Z. Malaysian Youth Associations as Places for Empowerment and Engagement. Child. Youth Serv. Rev.; 2020; 112, 104939. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104939]
27. Khan, S.; Mishra, J.; Ahmed, N.; Onyige, C.D.; Lin, K.E.; Siew, R.; Lim, B.H. Risk Communication and Community Engagement during COVID-19. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct.; 2022; 74, 102903. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.102903]
28. Coles, E.; Buckle, P. Developing Community Resilience as a Foundation for Effective Disaster Recovery. Aust. J. Emerg. Manag.; 2004; 19, pp. 6-15.
29. Basher, R. Global Early Warning Systems for Natural Hazards: Systematic and People-Centred. Philos. Trans. R Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.; 2006; 364, pp. 2167-2182. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2006.1819]
30. Zreik, M. Governing Complex Disasters in Southeast Asia: A Focus on COVID-19 Management in Malaysia. Southeast Asia A Multidiscip. J.; 2024; 24, pp. 171-184. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1108/SEAMJ-12-2023-0084]
31. Stonaker, M.E. Management of Dead Bodies in Disaster Situations; DIANE Publishing: Collingdale, PA, USA, 2008; ISBN 1437900631
32. Yahaya, N.S.; Pereira, J.J.; Taha, M.R.; Yaacob, W.Z.W. Natech Potential Due to Emerging Climate Hazards and Awareness of the Local Stakeholders in the Coastal Industrial Site of Kuala Selangor, Malaysia. Chemosphere; 2024; 367, 143551. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143551] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39424155]
33. Halstead, S.B. Selective Primary Health Care: Strategies for Control of Disease in the Developing World. XI. Dengue. Rev. Infect. Dis.; 1984; 6, pp. 251-264. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinids/6.2.251]
34. Sadeka, S.; Mohamad, M.S.; Sarkar, S.K.; Al-Amin, A.Q. Vulnerability, Social Capital and Disaster Preparedness: Experiences of the Orang Asli Families in Malaysia; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2023; ISBN 9819938740
35. Thurairajah, N.; Wedawatta, G.; Thurairajah, N. Rethinking Offsite Manufacturing for Disaster Resilience. Offsite Production and Manufacturing for Innovative Construction; Routledge: London, UK, 2019; pp. 470-489.
36. Newland, K. Will International Migration Governance Survive the COVID-19 Pandemic. Migration Policy Institute. 2020; Available online: https://www.migrationpolicy.org/sites/default/files/publications/globalcompact-migration-governance-pandemic-final.pdf (accessed on 26 November 2024).
37. Wahlstrom, M.; Guha-Sapir, D. The Human Cost of Weather-Related Disasters 1995–2015; United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR): Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.
38. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. UNSDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction; United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR): Geneva, Switzerland, 2009.
39. Elias, Z.; Hamin, Z.; Othman, M.B. Sustainable Management of Flood Risks in Malaysia: Some Lessons from the Legislation in England and Wales. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci.; 2013; 105, pp. 491-497. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.11.052]
40. Leeonis, A.N.; Ahmed, M.F.; Bin Mokhtar, M.; Lim, C.K.; Halder, B. Challenges of Using a Geographic Information System (GIS) in Managing Flash Floods in Shah Alam, Malaysia. Sustainability; 2024; 16, 7528. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su16177528]
41. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. UNDRR Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030; United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR): Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.
42. Simplilearn. What Is Data Analysis: A Comprehensive Guide. 2024; Available online: https://www.simplilearn.com/data-analysis-methods-process-types-article (accessed on 27 November 2024).
43. Rampin, R.; Rampin, V. Taguette: Open-Source Qualitative Data Analysis. J. Open Source Softw.; 2021; 6, 3522. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.21105/joss.03522]
44. Hage, R. Instilling Parental Confidence Through Text-Linked Educational Modules at 6 and 24 Weeks. Honors Scholar Thesis; UCONN Digital Commons: Storrs, CT, USA, 2023.
45. Bradford, R.A.; O’Sullivan, J.J. Improving Communication Strategies for Effective Flood Risk Management. Proceedings of the National Hydrology Conference; Citeseer: Princeton, NJ, USA, 2011; pp. 52-63.
46. Leeonis, A.N.; Ahmed, M.F.; Halder, B.; Bin Mokhtar, M.; Lim, C.K.; Juneng, L.; Khirotdin, R.P.K. Mitigating Flood Risk at Shah Alam, Malaysia for Sustainable Development. Discov. Sustain.; 2024; 5, 352. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s43621-024-00504-y]
47. Khailani, D.K.; Perera, R. Mainstreaming Disaster Resilience Attributes in Local Development Plans for the Adaptation to Climate Change Induced Flooding: A Study Based on the Local Plan of Shah Alam City, Malaysia. Land Use Policy; 2013; 30, pp. 615-627. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.05.003]
48. Lee, K.J. A Case Study of Collaborative Disaster Management in Malaysia. Master’s Thesis; University of Canterbury: Christchurch, New Zealand, 2019.
49. Domingo, S.N. Institutional Issues on Disaster Risk Reduction and Management; PIDS Discussion Paper Series; Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS): Quezon City, Philippines, 2017.
50. Kuraoka, S.; Paudyal, Y.R.; Razak, K.A. Transdisciplinary Approach for Building Societal Resilience to Disasters–Interpreting the Processes of Creating New Knowledge in the Context of Knowledge Management. J. Disaster Res.; 2020; 15, pp. 868-877. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2020.p0868]
51. Fernández-Nóvoa, D.; González-Cao, J.; García-Feal, O. Enhancing Flood Risk Management: A Comprehensive Review on Flood Early Warning Systems with Emphasis on Numerical Modeling. Water; 2024; 16, 1408. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w16101408]
52. van Dijk, M.D. The Use of Creative and Arts-Based Methods to Overcome the Barriers of Public Participation. Master’s Thesis; Rijksuniversiteit: Groningen, The Netherlands, 2024.
53. Salgado, M.J.H.; Alfonso, L.; Upegui, J.J.V. Towards Integrating Community and Institutional Flood Early Warning Systems: A Framework Applied to an Andean Tropical Case. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct.; 2025; 116, 105126. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.105126]
54. Kurniawan, T.A.; Meidiana, C.; Goh, H.H.; Zhang, D.; Jiang, M.; Othman, M.H.D.; Anouzla, A.; Aziz, F.; Mahmoud, M.; Khan, M.I. Social Dimensions of Climate-induced Flooding in Jakarta (Indonesia): The Role of Non-point Source Pollution. Water Environ. Res.; 2024; 96, e11129. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wer.11129] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39307575]
55. Low, K.C.; Chong, S.L. Fighting COVID-19 Pandemic: Evaluation of the Government Crisis Communication by Prime Minister of Malaysia. Webology; 2022; 19, pp. 2748-2767.
56. Verchick, R.R.M. Facing Catastrophe: Environmental Action for a Post-Katrina World; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2010; ISBN 067426813X
57. World Health Organization. Addressing Health of the Urban Poor in South-East Asia Region: Challenges and Opportunities; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011.
58. Kundzewicz, Z.W.; Kanae, S.; Seneviratne, S.I.; Handmer, J.; Nicholls, N.; Peduzzi, P.; Mechler, R.; Bouwer, L.M.; Arnell, N.; Mach, K. et al. Flood Risk and Climate Change: Global and Regional Perspectives. Hydrol. Sci. J.; 2013; 59, pp. 1-28. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2013.857411]
59. Olutumise, A.I. Intensity of Adaptations to Heat Stress in Poultry Farms: A Behavioural Analysis of Farmers in Ondo State, Nigeria. J. Therm. Biol.; 2023; 115, 103614. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2023.103614]
60. Kamal, S.A. The Effects of Global Warming: The Case Study of Karachi’s Heat Waves & Its Implication. Int. J. Policy Stud.; 2022; 2, Available online: https://ijpstudies.com/index.php/ijps/article/view/22 (accessed on 25 November 2024).
61. Rezaei, A.R.; Ismail, Z.; Niksokhan, M.H.; Dayarian, M.A.; Ramli, A.H.; Yusoff, S. Optimal Implementation of Low Impact Development for Urban Stormwater Quantity and Quality Control Using Multi-Objective Optimization. Environ. Monit. Assess.; 2021; 193, pp. 1-22. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09010-4]
62. Hamnett, S.; Forbes, D.K. Planning Asian Cities: Risks and Resilience; Routledge: Abingdon, UK, 2011; ISBN 0415563356
63. Kreimer, A.; Arnold, M.; Carlin, A. Building Safer Cities: The Future of Disaster Risk; World Bank Publications: Washington, DC, USA, 2003; ISBN 0821354973
64. DID Malaysian Department of Irrigation and Drainage (MDID). Available online: https://www.water.gov.my/ (accessed on 27 November 2024).
65. Willison, Z.D.; de la Cruz, L.B.; Luneta, M.D. Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation. Handbook on Climate Change and Disasters; Edward Elgar Publishing: Cheltenham, UK, 2022; pp. 330-352. ISBN 1800371616
66. Kelman, I. Climate Change and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. Int. J. Disaster Risk Sci.; 2015; 6, pp. 117-127. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13753-015-0046-5]
67. Sánchez-García, C.; Corvacho-Ganahín, Ó.; Santasusagna Riu, A.; Francos, M. Nature-Based Solutions (NbSs) to Improve Flood Preparedness in Barcelona Metropolitan Area (Northeastern Spain). Hydrology; 2024; 11, 213. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/hydrology11120213]
68. Sukereman, A.S.; Isa, M.; Abd Talif, K.A.; Zainol, N.N.; Yunus, N.M. Challenges in Sustainable Residential Property Development in Shah Alam: Pathways towards Implementing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Int. J. Prop. Sci.; 2024; 14, pp. 16-36. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.22452/ijps.vol14no1.2]
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.
Details
; Minhaz Farid Ahmed 1
; Radwan, Neyara 2 ; Mazlin Bin Mokhtar 3
; Chen Kim Lim 1
; Halder, Bijay 4
; Scholz, Miklas 5
; Alshehri, Fahad 6 ; Pande, Chaitanya Baliram 7
1 Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia;
2 Industrial Management Department, Faculty of Business, Liwa College, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 41009, United Arab Emirates;
3 Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia;
4 Department of Earth Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia;
5 Department of Civil Engineering Science, School of Civil Engineering and the Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, Kingsway Campus, Aukland Park, P.O. Box 524, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa; Kunststoff-Technik Adams, Specialist Company According to Water Law, Schulstraße 7, 26931 Elsfleth, Germany; Department of Water, RBS Wave, Mittlerer Pfad 2-4, 70499 Stuttgart, Germany; Nexus by Sweden, Skepparbacken 5, 722 11 Västerås, Sweden
6 Abdullah Alrushaid Chair for Earth Science Remote Sensing Research, Geology and Geophysics Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia;
7 Abdullah Alrushaid Chair for Earth Science Remote Sensing Research, Geology and Geophysics Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia;