1. Introduction
The growing demand for food due to population growth, coupled with the adverse effects of climate change, has positioned protected agriculture as a key strategy to ensure food security [1,2]. According to estimates from various sources, the world population is expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, with 68 to 80% residing in urban areas [3]. Similarly, climate change poses critical challenges, including rising temperatures, shifts in precipitation patterns, and an increased frequency of extreme weather events, all of which directly impact agricultural productivity [4]. In the face of these threats, protected agriculture systems, such as greenhouses and vertical farms, emerge as viable solutions to mitigate climate impact, optimizing resources and stabilizing food production [5]. Under this scenario, there has been a growing interest in technologies to optimize agricultural production under controlled and semi-controlled conditions, ensuring the efficient use of resources such as water, light, and nutrients [6,7].
Within this framework, the manipulation of the microclimate in greenhouses, particularly light, has been identified as a determining factor in crop productivity and quality [8]. Light plays a crucial role in influencing photosynthesis, morphogenesis, and biosynthesis of bioactive compounds. In particular, the quality, quantity, and duration of light directly affect the productivity and sustainability of agricultural systems [9]. On the other hand, light is a fundamental environmental factor that regulates the physiology and behavior of living organisms. In plants, it serves a dual role: driving photosynthesis by converting light energy into chemical energy and acting as a sensory signal for key developmental processes such as phototropism, germination, and flowering [9]. In addition, plants optimize photosynthesis by adjusting leaf and chloroplast movements toward light under limited conditions [10]. In the face of high light intensity and UV-B rays, they prevent photodamage by displacing chloroplasts and synthesizing protective pigments. These adaptations are essential for their survival [11].
The use of artificial light in agriculture began in 1861 in France, although its application to improve the yield of horticultural crops did not become popular until the first half of the 20th century [12]. Over time, various lighting technologies have been used, such as incandescent, fluorescent, mercury vapor, high-pressure sodium (HPS), and metal halide lamps [13]. Incandescent lamps, although emitting radiation in the 400 to 700 nm range, showed very low energy efficiency (1–5%) due to their high energy loss in the far-red region (FR), which prompted their replacement [4]. Subsequently, gas discharge lamps, such as fluorescent and high-pressure lamps, became a widely adopted solution due to their higher energy efficiency achieved through electrical discharges in gases under pressure [14].
In recent decades, lighting technologies have advanced significantly, leading to the development of light-emitting diodes (LEDs). These innovations have transformed agricultural lighting, providing greater energy efficiency, enhanced spectral control, and a reduced environmental impact. As a result, LEDs have become the preferred choice for modern agricultural applications [15]. Traditionally, technologies such as high-pressure sodium (HPS), metal halide, and fluorescent (FL) lamps dominated the horticultural lighting market. These technologies had certain advantages, such as affordable costs and availability, but also significant limitations [16,17]. For example, HPS lamps are highly efficient in converting energy into photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), but they emit predominantly in the yellow and red regions, leaving a deficit in the blue range, crucial for photosynthesis and morphogenesis of many crops [18]. In addition, these sources generated excess heat, which required additional cooling systems, increasing the operating costs of the greenhouses [19].
The development of LED technology has revolutionized horticultural lighting by allowing precise manipulation of the light spectrum, with significant benefits for crops [18,20]. Studies have shown that specific combinations of red (600–700 nm) and blue (450–490 nm) light can increase photosynthesis, improve the nutritional quality of produce, and reduce time to maturity. For example, lettuce (Lactuca sativa) grown under optimized LED light spectra has shown increased content of bioactive compounds such as anthocyanins and flavonoids [21]. In addition, LED systems can be easily integrated with digital sensors and controllers, allowing the implementation of intelligent lighting programs designed to optimize plant photosynthesis. This is achieved by precisely adjusting the emission ratio between blue and red LEDs, as well as the frequency and intensity of light, adapting them to the specific needs of each species and stage of development [22]. In the last two decades, numerous researchers have worked on the development of LEDs as a greenhouse lighting solution, achieving significant advances in promoting flowering in greenhouse plants and improving photosynthetic efficiency [23,24,25].
The use of artificial lighting on crops has generated diverse positive effects on a wide variety of plant species, depending on the type of light, intensity, and environmental conditions [22]. Some findings are summarized below; in crops such as lettuce, spinach, kale, and basil, illumination with red and blue spectra at intensities close to 200 μmol m−2 s−1 and temperatures of 25/21 °C has been shown to increase plant height, leaf number, and carotenoid and antioxidant contents [26]. In lettuce specifically, combinations of red and blue light increased dry weight, photosynthetic yield, and total phenolic content [27]. Studies with Chinese cabbage under mixed red, blue, green, and yellow spectra showed increases in fresh mass, dry mass, and chlorophyll [28]. On the other hand, in crops such as tomatoes, peppers, strawberries, and cucumbers, the combination of red and blue lights, together with white in some cases, improved biomass, photosynthetic response, and fruit yield [29,30,31,32]. In mini cucumbers and strawberries, increases in fruit productivity and energy use efficiency were observed [33]. In potatoes, red and blue lighting increased leaf area, height, and carotenoid synthesis [34].
In flowering plants such as geraniums, snapdragons, poinsettias, and crocuses, exposure to blue and red light has been shown to enhance key traits, including seedling height, early flowering, leaf thickness, and flower induction [35,36]. For example, in saffron, the combined lights increased total flavonoids and flavonol glycosides [37], while in carnations, white, blue, and red light prolonged the shelf life of the flower vessels [38]. It is also important to note that in even more intensive production environments such as plant factories or controlled vertical farming environments, the use of LED lights has become the preferred technology for the application of plant lighting requirements [6].
Based on the above, it is quite clear that the manipulation of light in greenhouses, especially through lighting technologies, has proven to be a key factor in optimizing agricultural productivity and crop quality [39]. In this context, understanding how artificial light, particularly LED systems, influences processes such as photosynthesis, morphogenesis, and biosynthesis of bioactive compounds is essential [14]. To address this complex landscape, bibliometrics is an essential tool to analyze the evolution of research in this area, identify the most promising technologies, and highlight the global trends driving innovation in protected agriculture [40].
Bibliometrics is an essential tool for analyzing scientific production, identifying trends, patterns, and gaps in research on a specific topic [41,42]. In the context of greenhouse lighting, bibliometrics provides insight into how this area has evolved, highlighting the most studied technologies, the most promising applications, and the leading countries in innovation [43,44,45]. This quantitative and qualitative approach not only helps to identify the areas of greatest impact, but also to guide future research towards more efficient and sustainable solutions for protected agriculture [46].
The adoption of advanced artificial lighting technologies in protected agriculture represents a key opportunity to enhance the productivity and sustainability of agricultural systems in Latin America and the Caribbean. However, their implementation faces multiple technical, economic, and social challenges that hinder widespread adoption. Research conducted in Mexico and Ecuador has demonstrated the significant potential of LED systems to optimize crops such as tomatoes and lettuce in greenhouses [47,48]. Nevertheless, large-scale adoption continues to encounter barriers related to high initial installation costs and a lack of economic incentives. Similarly, in countries such as Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, and the Dominican Republic, where protected agriculture is expanding, limitations persist in the technical training of farmers and the transfer of knowledge regarding the use of artificial lighting technologies. These barriers hinder the adoption of advanced solutions that could substantially improve agricultural productivity in these regions [49].
In this context, it is important to highlight that technical, social, and economic constraints in Latin America and the Caribbean have hindered the widespread adoption of protected agriculture as a large-scale, sustainable intensification strategy. Recent studies emphasize that the suitability of available technologies to meet the specific needs of local farmers is a critical factor for adoption. For instance, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Diffusion of Innovations Theory (IDT) suggest that farmers’ perceptions of the utility and ease of use of these technologies, as well as their compatibility with existing practices, are essential for ensuring widespread acceptance and use. These models have been applied in regional experiences, such as urban tomato cultivation supported by IoT-based systems, which have identified similar challenges in integrating advanced technologies into local agricultural contexts [50].
While significant advances have been made in the application of lighting technologies in protected agriculture, bibliometric analyses that comprehensively map the evolution of these technologies and their research trends are still lacking. This gap is particularly evident in developing countries such as Colombia, where the adoption of advanced lighting solutions is still in its early stages or remains highly limited in implementation. Highlighting this gap underscores the importance of understanding how global innovations in artificial lighting, particularly LED systems, can be adapted to address the specific needs and challenges of these regions.
To bridge this gap, this study aims to conduct a bibliometric analysis of greenhouse lighting technologies, with a focus on the evolution, trends, and application of LED systems in horticultural crops. This analysis seeks to address the following research questions: (1) What are the global trends and main contributors in research on lighting technologies for protected agriculture? (2) What are the most relevant topics, journals, and countries contributing to the research on LED systems in greenhouse lighting? (3) What are the gaps and opportunities for the adoption of these technologies in developing regions, particularly in countries such as Colombia? This study aims to provide a solid foundation for understanding the trajectory of research and to highlight opportunities for integrating advanced lighting technologies in underrepresented contexts.
2. Materials and Methods
The present study employed a structured bibliometric approach to analyze the use of lighting technologies in controlled agriculture, aiming to assess the development of this field of knowledge [51,52]. The methodology employed in this study follows the guidelines of the PRISMA approach (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses), structured into four main phases (Figure 1). This systematic approach ensures a comprehensive and reproducible analysis while identifying knowledge gaps and key trends in the field [53].
2.1. Phase 1: Information Search and Collection
In the first phase, to identify relevant articles related to the use of lighting technologies in greenhouses, a specific search equation was designed and executed in the Scopus database, a robust academic and scientific database [45,54]. The equation used was the following:
TITLE-ABS-KEY((greenhouse* AND („lighting technology” OR „artificial lighting” OR „LED lighting” OR „grow lights” OR „light spectrum” OR „photosynthetic photon flux density” OR „light-emitting diodes” OR „supplemental lighting”) AND (crop* OR horticulture OR „protected agriculture” OR „controlled environment agriculture”))). (1)
The search equation is designed to identify documents related to lighting technologies in greenhouses and protected agriculture. It combines key terms using Boolean operators to maximize the relevance of the results: it includes “greenhouse*” to cover studies related to greenhouses, along with specific terms about lighting technologies such as “LED lighting”, “artificial lighting”, “photosynthetic photon flux density”, and “light spectrum”. Additionally, it incorporates terms like “crop*”, “horticulture”, “protected agriculture”, and “controlled environment agriculture” to ensure a focus on crops and protected agriculture systems. This structure ensures efficient retrieval of studies on lighting applications in controlled environments.
This search included publications developed between 1974 and 2024, focusing on peer-reviewed articles, books, conference proceedings, and book chapters that addressed the use of lighting technologies in protected and semi-controlled agriculture. Only studies published in English were included to ensure scientific quality and relevance, resulting in an initial set of 680 documents. These documents underwent a filtering process to remove duplicates, documents lacking complete bibliographic information, studies unrelated to protected agriculture, and, specifically, those not aligned with the main topic of artificial light usage [41,55]. Similarly, publications without full text or direct access to content were excluded. As a result of this filtering process, a final corpus of 657 documents was obtained [44]. Subsequently, these 657 documents were reviewed through a technical content analysis to ensure they met the criteria established for the study, verifying their relevance and quality within the framework of the review on lighting technologies in protected agriculture.
2.2. Phase 2: Bibliometric and Scientific Performance Analysis
The selected documents were analyzed using bibliometric tools such as Bibliometrix in R and VOSviewer [56,57]. This analysis facilitated the extraction of key metadata, including authors, institutions, countries, keywords, and citations, offering a comprehensive overview of scientific performance in this research field. Subsequently, bibliometric graphs were generated, such as keyword co-occurrence maps and co-authorship networks, to identify the most influential collaborations and emerging topics in the field of lighting technologies for protected agriculture (Supplementary Materials: Table S1) [58].
2.3. Phase 3: Technical and Qualitative Analysis
This phase focused on a detailed analysis of the 10 most cited documents. The analysis included an evaluation of scientific contributions, highlighting advancements in lighting technologies, such as LED systems, and their impact on crop productivity and the sustainability of protected agricultural systems. Additionally, thematic maps were constructed based on multiple correspondence analysis (MCA), which allowed the identification of research clusters related to spectrum optimization, the impact on crop physiology, the design of energy-efficient systems, as well as knowledge gaps and research trends [40,55].
2.4. Phase 4: Discussion and Synthesis of Results
Finally, the results of the bibliometric and technical analysis were integrated into a critical discussion on global trends in the application of lighting technologies in protected agriculture. The discussion emphasized the role of artificial lighting, particularly LED systems, in enhancing key processes such as photosynthesis, plant morphological development, and the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds. The discussion addressed current challenges in artificial lighting for protected agriculture, aiming to propose future research directions. Overall, this methodology ensures a comprehensive evaluation of the state of the art, providing a solid foundation for designing strategies that promote the adoption of advanced lighting technologies in protected agriculture, especially in developing countries.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Main Information
The information gathered presents a comprehensive overview of the scientific production in this specific area of research, providing key data covering temporal aspects, collaboration, content, and documentary typology. The period analyzed covers five decades, from 1974 to 2024, during which 656 documents were published in 251 sources (journals, books, among others). The average annual growth rate is 8.14%, which shows a sustained interest around study. This growth rate is considerable and shows how the field has evolved in response to new technologies, emerging needs, and research priorities. The average age of the papers is 7.19 years, reflecting a balance between influential historical publications and recent work that keeps the field active.
The average value of citations per paper is 18.28, an indicator of the overall impact of publications in the academic community. This average is remarkable and suggests that the field has produced research of high relevance and quality. In addition, the total volume of references (22,577) highlights the bibliographic depth of the corpus, underscoring the reliance on previous studies to support current contributions. This also reflects a high level of knowledge integration in the area. The keyword analysis shows a high density of key terms: 2399 automatically assigned keywords and 1789 author-defined terms. This highlights the significant thematic diversity within the field, enabling the mapping of different research sub-areas and emerging trends. The large volume of keywords suggests a dynamic and evolving research landscape, presenting numerous opportunities to analyze patterns and correlations between topics.
The total number of authors involved is 1886, reflecting a large and diverse academic community. However, only 47 of these authors have worked on individually authored papers, resulting in a total of 53 such papers (8.1% of the total corpus). The average of 4.23 co-authors per paper is evidence of a high level of collaboration, both within teams and internationally. Despite this, only 15.4% of the papers resulted from international co-authorships, suggesting room for improving global partnerships and diversifying perspectives. Most of the scientific production corresponds to articles (425, equivalent to 64.8%), followed by papers presented at conferences (171 papers, 26.1%). Reviews represent 5.18% of the total, with 34 papers, while book chapters account for 20 (3%). The limited representation of books and notes (two papers each) indicates that the main focus of the field is on dissemination through peer-reviewed journals and conferences, which are the preferred formats for the scientific community.
3.2. Academic Production by Year
Figure 2 shows an increasing trend in the number of papers published over time on the use of lighting technologies in greenhouse crops, reflecting a growing and sustained interest in this field. In the first decades, scientific production is moderate and relatively stable, with small fluctuations in the number of publications. This behavior can be interpreted as an initial period of exploration and development of basic lighting technologies for protected crops [59]. However, since the last 15 years, there has been an exponential growth in the number of publications, which shows a significant increase in research activity, driven by advances in technologies such as LED systems, the optimization of the light spectrum, and the use of various tools for the efficient design of lighting strategies [22].
The recent growth in scientific production may be associated with the implementation of advanced technologies that integrate artificial lighting with climate control systems, favoring the development of more productive and sustainable crops in greenhouses [18]. These innovations, such as customized LED lighting to maximize photosynthesis, have revolutionized agricultural practices in controlled environments, enabling more efficient use of energy resources and improving the quality of agricultural products [60]. In addition, this increase also reflects the global focus on sustainability and food security, areas where protected crops, combined with advanced lighting, play a key role in generating viable solutions to address global challenges [6].
Finally, the growth pattern in publications underscores the sustained interest in this field and its future potential for both academic research and practical applications. The increasing number of studies suggests a rise in interdisciplinary and international collaboration, which could lead to more effective solutions for optimizing lighting systems and enhancing sustainability in protected agriculture [22]. However, this growth also highlights the need to prioritize studies that address knowledge gaps, such as the long-term impact of these technologies on operating costs and crop quality, thus ensuring that advances are sustainable and scalable in global contexts [61].
3.3. Documents Published by Subject Área
The analysis of the thematic areas associated with the papers collected on the use of lighting technologies in controlled and semi-controlled agriculture in greenhouses reveals a significant predominance of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, with 480 publications, representing the central core of research in this field (Figure 3). This is consistent, given that the main objective of these technologies is to optimize agricultural production and improve the biological processes of crops in controlled environments. These publications address topics such as plant growth, photosynthetic efficiency, and crop adaptation to different light spectra [62,63,64].
The second most represented thematic area is Engineering, with 126 papers, which shows the importance of technical solutions and innovations in the design of lighting systems, climate control equipment, and greenhouse optimization [65]. This reflects the interdisciplinary approach of this field, where engineering plays a key role in developing efficient and sustainable technologies [66]. Areas such as Energy (42 papers) and Computer Science (46 papers) also stand out, showing interest in the integration of smart technologies, such as IoT-based systems and computational models, for energy management and improved environmental control in greenhouses [67,68].
Topics such as Biochemistry, Genetics, and Molecular Biology (61 papers) and Environmental Science (57 papers) highlight the interest in understanding the biochemical and molecular mechanisms that regulate the response of crops to lighting technologies, as well as the associated environmental impacts [69,70]. Areas such as Physics and Astronomy (38 papers) and Mathematics (20 papers) are probably related to the physicomathematical modeling of phenomena such as light and energy transfer, essential to optimize lighting systems [71,72].
Finally, although with less representation, areas such as Chemical Engineering, Materials Science, and Business, Management, and Accounting show an interest in the design of new materials for lighting systems and in the economic analysis of these technologies, which highlights their relevance both from a technical and financial point of view [73,74]. The presence of multidisciplinary areas (11 papers) reinforces the idea that this research involves a combination of knowledge, seeking to comprehensively address the challenges associated with protected and semi-controlled agriculture. This confirms that the use of lighting technologies in greenhouses is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field, with significant impacts on science and industry [75,76,77].
3.4. Documents Published by Country
Analysis of the distribution of scientific publications by country reveals significant patterns in global academic production (Figure 4). The United States leads by far with 153 published papers, which is more than double the number of papers produced by the second country on the list, Canada, with 68 publications. This U.S. leadership highlights its consolidated research capacity, probably influenced by investment in scientific infrastructure, international collaboration, and access to resources. It is followed by European countries such as the Netherlands (67 papers) and Italy (40 papers), which stand out in the publication landscape despite having smaller populations, indicating a high efficiency in their academic production.
Asia also plays a key role in scientific production, with China leading the region with 46 publications, followed by Japan with 36. These data reflect Asia’s growing investment in research and development, especially in technological areas. South Korea (26 papers) and Russia (24 papers) also figure as prominent contributors in the scientific field. It is relevant to note the geographic diversity of the Asian countries shown in Figure 3, suggesting that scientific production in the region is not limited to the traditional powers.
Europe presents a high degree of participation with Nordic countries such as Sweden (20 papers), Finland (15), and Norway (15) standing out, despite their smaller demographic size. In addition, the United Kingdom (14 papers) and Germany (32) continue to be significant contributors, underlining the importance of research support policies in the region. However, several European countries with one or few publications, such as Portugal, Serbia, and Estonia, stand out as examples of inequality in intra-regional scientific production.
Finally, countries in Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East show lower participation, reflecting common challenges related to investment in research and access to collaborative networks. Brazil leads in Latin America with 12 documents, followed by Colombia, Mexico, and Argentina with modest numbers. In Africa, Morocco and Zimbabwe stand out with three and two publications, respectively. These data highlight a persistent gap in the global distribution of scientific output, underscoring the need to strengthen international cooperation and support developing countries to enhance their representation in the global scientific landscape.
3.5. Co-Authorship Network by Country
The co-authorship network presented in the graph provides a detailed overview of international collaborations in scientific research (Figure 5). Each node represents a country, whose size reflects the number of published papers, while the connections between nodes (links) indicate the collaborative relationships between countries [46,78]. The thickness of the links is related to the strength of these collaborations. This analysis highlights the central role of certain countries in driving international partnerships and shaping the global structure of academic research.
The United States stands out as the most relevant node in the network, leading both in the number of documents with 153, as well as the number of citations with 3403 and a total link strength of 31. Strong U.S. connections with countries such as Canada, China, the Netherlands, and Italy underscore its influence in leading and coordinating global research efforts, especially on topics such as artificial lighting in greenhouses, which require multidisciplinary approaches and shared resources.
At a second level are countries such as Canada and Italy, which also play a prominent role in the network. Canada, with 68 documents and a link strength of 21, maintains significant collaborations with the United States, while Italy, with 40 documents and a link strength of 18, acts as a key node connecting Europe with Russia and mainly Asian countries. On the other hand, the strong connection between Italy and the Netherlands (67 papers and 2219 citations for the Netherlands) highlights a robust collaboration in Europe, probably driven by common research interests and the support of European funding programs, for high-tech protected agriculture topics.
Likewise, the Netherlands is distinguished by a high impact in its scientific production, with 2219 citations for 67 papers, reflecting a high quality and relevance of its publications. On the other hand, northern European countries, such as Finland, Norway, and Sweden, also play a crucial role with citation strengths of 15, 13, and 11, respectively. These countries, characterized by their emphasis on interdisciplinary research, maintain an active collaborative network at both regional and international levels.
China and Brazil represent emerging nodes within the global collaboration network. China, with 45 papers and a liaison strength of 14, reflects its growing influence in international scientific partnerships, maintaining strong links with countries such as Singapore, the Netherlands, and Australia. Brazil, with 12 papers and a liaison strength of 4, contributes as a leading South American country to the global research arena, although with a lower connectivity compared to other regions. In Europe and Asia, a pattern of strong collaboration between neighboring countries is observed, facilitated by geographic proximity and shared funding programs. Countries such as Germany, Spain, and Belgium show significant linkages within the region, while the United Kingdom and France extend their connectivity outside Europe. In Asia, countries such as Singapore and Japan also play a relevant role; Singapore, for example, maintains significant connections with Australia and China, taking advantage of its strategic position in geographical and academic terms.
This co-authorship network analysis reveals opportunities to enhance global collaboration. While countries such as the United States and the Netherlands exhibit high connectivity, emerging regions like South America and parts of Asia could benefit from initiatives that foster broader international partnerships. In summary, this co-authorship network highlights both key players and opportunities for fostering more equitable and diverse academic partnerships globally.
3.6. Institutions with the Highest Scientific Productivity
Wageningen University & Research has established itself as the leading institution in research on greenhouse lighting techniques, with 63 publications in this field (Table 1). Its leadership not only reflects the Netherlands’ tradition in high-tech agriculture, but also its ability to innovate in the development and implementation of advanced solutions, such as LED lighting adapted to protected production systems. This approach is aligned with the global goals of sustainability and energy efficiency, positioning this institution as an academic and technological reference in this field.
On the other hand, contributions from North America are equally notable, with institutions such as Michigan State University (33 publications) and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (31 publications) leading research in their respective regions. These entities address specific challenges arising from local climatic conditions, such as the need to make up for low solar irradiance during the winter months. This approach demonstrates how regional research can generate specific and transferable solutions that optimize agricultural performance in diverse contexts.
The importance of specialized research centers is evidenced by institutions such as the Harrow Research and Development Centre (24 publications) and Université Laval (20 publications). These centers often combine applied research with technology transfer, focusing on key aspects such as the management of light intensity, quality, and duration to maximize photosynthesis and crop yields. Their work is crucial to develop practical solutions that can be rapidly implemented in protected agricultural systems, strengthening the sustainability of the sector.
In the U.S. context, universities such as Purdue University (21 publications), University of Georgia (17), and Cornell University (16) have made significant contributions to the study of the interaction between lighting and plant physiology. This research not only explores the impact of different light spectra on crop production and quality but also addresses aspects related to energy efficiency. This work integrates technological advances with strategies that respond to global market demands and sustainability objectives.
Finally, the role of international collaboration in research on greenhouse lighting techniques is evidenced by the inclusion of institutions such as Chiba University (14 publications). This interdisciplinary and multinational effort is crucial for adapting lighting technologies to the specific needs and climatic conditions of different regions worldwide. Additionally, it promotes the development of academic and scientific networks that drive innovation, support sustainable development, and help address global challenges such as climate change and food security.
3.7. Most Productive Authors
Regarding the authors with the highest productivity in this area of knowledge, the 10 authors with the highest number of published papers are presented in Table 2. The list is led by Runkle, E.S., with 22 published papers, 3469 citations, and an H-index of 34; he is one of the most prominent authors in greenhouse lighting technologies. Affiliated with Michigan State University, his research focuses on the application of blue, red, and far-red light in crops such as lettuce, chrysanthemums, and ornamental flowers [79]. Among his most notable contributions are the use of transparent photovoltaic panels for greenhouses and the analysis of ultraviolet light to improve the quality of vegetables [80,81,82]. The high citation rate of his work reflects its influence in the design of lighting strategies that not only improve production, but also the post-harvest quality of crops, consolidating the United States as a reference in this technological area.
In second position is Hao, X., who, with 16 publications, 1303 citations, and an H-index of 20, represents a mainstay in Canadian research on dynamic greenhouse lighting [83]. His work at the Harrow Research and Development Centre focuses on optimizing continuous LED lighting, reducing energy costs, and improving photosynthesis in crops such as tomatoes and peppers [84]. Hao also investigates the role of green light in plant canopy penetration and the interaction of 24 h light cycles with crop circadian rhythms [85]. These findings have significant implications for energy sustainability and yield optimization in protected agriculture.
In third place, Marcelis, L.F.M., from Wageningen University & Research, stands out with 14 papers, 8951 citations, and an H-index of 53, making him one of the most influential researchers in the field. His focus includes the use of far-red light to increase yields of peppers and tomatoes, optimization of vertical crops for protein production, and metabolic analysis in medical cannabis under different light conditions [86,87]. Citation figures and his high H-index evidence the global relevance of his work, particularly at the intersection between agricultural innovation and sustainability.
From Russia in fourth position appears Berkovich, Y.A., who, with 14 publications, 402 citations, and an H-index of 11, contributes to the design of lighting systems for space missions [88,89]. His research focuses on optimizing LED lighting to stabilize oxygen and improve plant nutrition in closed greenhouses. These developments have implications not only for space applications, but also for highly controlled terrestrial environments [90]. Despite his lower number of citations, his work brings a unique perspective by incorporating elements of aerospace biotechnology into the agricultural field.
In fifth position is Dorais, M., with 13 papers, 3075 citations, and an H-index of 31, representing a key figure in Canada. Affiliated with Université Laval, her research combines sustainability and technology, highlighting complementary LED lighting strategies that enhance plant growth without compromising biological pest control [91,92]. Her work in urban agriculture, such as rooftop production and the use of organic fertilizers, underscores her holistic approach to sustainable food production systems [93]. In sixth place is Heuvelink, E., also from Wageningen University & Research, with 12 papers, 6787 citations, and an H-index of 45. His research explores the use of far-red light to improve apical dominance and fruit production in peppers [86]. In addition, it investigates the combination of within-canopy and top light, showing how different light intensities affect tomato phenotypicity [87]. These contributions position Heuvelink as a leader in advanced lighting strategies for commercial greenhouses.
In seventh position is Lopez, R.G., with 12 publications, 1803 citations, and an H-index of 23, specializing in modeling crop responses to light and temperature [94]. His work at Michigan State University includes the development of machine learning algorithms to interpret nutrients in lettuce and optimize the quality of ornamental flowers [95,96]. His focus on supplemental light quality stands out as a key tool for customizing production strategies in high-value crops. On the other hand, in eighth position appears van Iersel, M.W, from the University of Georgia, contributing 11 papers, 4525 citations, and an H-index of 38, focusing on light efficiency in hydroponic systems [97]. His research includes the use of low-cost imaging systems to analyze plant growth and vigor, providing practical and affordable solutions for controlled agriculture [98,99]. Its high H-index reflects the impact of its technological innovations in the field.
In ninth place is Zheng, Y., with 10 publications, 2290 citations, and an H-index of 38, researching the effects of blue light on crops such as cannabis, from the Ontario Agricultural College [100]. His work highlights the variability of secondary metabolites under different light spectra and the phenological response of specialized crops under extended photoperiods [101]. These contributions strengthen the integration of plant physiology and biological control in modern farming systems [102]. Finally, Bergstrand, K.J, with nine papers, 747 citations, and an H-index of 16, represents Sweden with research combining smart lighting and renewable energy [103]. Its focus on light quality and its impact on biocontrols underlines the interplay between sustainability and technology [104,105]. In addition, it explores the use of anaerobic digestate as fertilizer, contributing to the development of more sustainable and efficient agricultural systems [106]. These ten authors, through their diverse and complementary contributions, outline a comprehensive picture of technological and sustainable advances in the field of greenhouse lighting.
Figure 6 shows the authors’ output in greenhouse lighting technologies over time, reflecting key patterns in the evolution of their contributions. Runkle, E.S. leads not only in volume of publications, but also in consistency, showing sustained productivity since the early 2000s. His contributions are marked by significant peaks in recent years, suggesting his growing relevance in the field and his ability to remain at the forefront in a rapidly evolving discipline. The intensity of citations per year (represented by the darker and larger circles) in the years with higher productivity reinforces the impact of their publications.
Authors such as Marcelis, L.F.M. and Heuvelink, E. show equally consistent trajectories, with a clear consolidation of their scientific production in the last decade. Marcelis, in particular, exhibits a remarkable impact in articles published during strategic periods, reflecting his focus on key topics such as light optimization in agricultural systems [107]. In contrast, the production of Dorais, M. and van Iersel, M.W., although lower in comparison, shows a linear and stable growth, pointing to their constant contribution to research in lighting technologies, with special emphasis on sustainability and energy efficiency [108,109].
Other authors, such as Zheng, Y. and Bergstrand, K.J., present more recent patterns of productivity, with publications concentrated in the last decade. This indicates the relatively late but significant entry of these researchers into the field, focusing on emerging issues such as the integration of renewable energies and the use of innovative technologies in protected agriculture [110,111]. Overall, the graph shows not only individual trends, but also an overall picture of the progress of the field, where sustained efforts and peaks of innovation have contributed to the development of this essential technology for modern agriculture.
3.8. Citation Network Between Authors
The analysis of the inter-author citation network offers a comprehensive perspective on scholarly relationships and the collaborative impact within the field of greenhouse lighting technologies (Figure 7). In this context, each node represents an author, while links denote relationships between authors, typically based on co-authorship of publications or the frequency of mutual citations [43,112]. Link strength quantifies the intensity of this relationship, reflecting the degree of scientific interaction and collaboration. In Figure 6, the size of the nodes indicates the productivity (number of papers), while the thickness of the links and their overall strength represent the strength of the connections between authors [113].
Figure 7 shows a network with several groupings or clusters of authors, evidencing the existence of academic communities with specific interests. For example, Marcelis, F.M.L., with a prominent node, is connected to multiple researchers such as Hao, X. and Bergstrand, K.J., reflecting his central role in a collaborative cluster focused on light optimization and sustainability in controlled crops. Its total of 422 citations and a high link strength of 163 underline its leadership in the network. On the other hand, Runkle, E.S., with 556 citations and 14 papers, is positioned as an important node in another scientific community, evidencing its influence in the design of lighting strategies.
In addition, Hao, X. emerges as a key node in a distinct cluster, with a high link strength of 272 and 11 papers. This author demonstrates a balance between productivity and collaboration, consolidating himself as a reference in the interaction of light and photosynthesis in crops such as tomato and bell pepper. Meanwhile, authors such as Berkovich, Y.A. and Bergstrand, K.J., although with fewer citations, stand out in their contribution to specific clusters, such as lighting studies in extreme environments or the integration of renewable energies in greenhouses. This demonstrates the thematic diversity in the network and the role of less cited but key nodes in emerging areas.
The network also highlights the decentralized nature of collaborations, where certain authors act as “bridges” between communities. This is seen in names such as Ottosen, C.O. and Zheng, Y., who facilitate the connection between researchers from different subject areas. The link strength and citations associated with these nodes indicate their relevance not only in terms of scholarly output, but also in the ability to foster interdisciplinary synergies. This analysis suggests that the interactions in the network are a direct reflection of the evolution of the field, where international cooperation and multidisciplinary approaches are essential to address contemporary challenges in protected agriculture.
3.9. Most Used Keywords
The analysis of the wordcloud (Figure 8) along with its frequencies provides a clear perspective on the key issues in the field of greenhouse lighting technologies [114]. The term “greenhouses”, with the highest frequency (113), dominates the wordcloud, reflecting the centrality of greenhouses as production systems in research. This is closely related to terms such as “photosynthesis” (81) and “light-emitting diodes” (71), which emphasize the importance of LED lighting and its direct impact on plant physiological processes, especially photosynthesis, a key focus in protected agriculture studies [115,116].
The prominent presence of terms such as “crops” (56), “lighting” (46), and “cultivation” (42) underlines the focus of this research on crop yield optimization through specific lighting strategies [117,118]. The combination of “crop production” (36) and “energy efficiency” (31) in the frequencies reflects the effort to develop sustainable systems that not only improve agricultural productivity but also reduce energy impact [119,120]. This approach is complemented by the analysis of terms such as “artificial lighting” (30) and “supplemental lighting” (27), which indicate the use of artificial light as a key tool for control and optimization in greenhouses [121,122].
The term “lycopersicon esculentum” (34), which refers to tomato, stands out as a frequently studied crop, which is consistent with its economic and biological relevance in greenhouse systems [123,124]. Other botanical terms such as “lettuce” (19) and “chlorophyll” (28) emphasize the interest in leaf crops and the biochemical processes associated with photosynthesis [125,126]. In addition, concepts such as “energy utilization” (25) and “solar radiation” (22) reflect the integration of renewable energy sources in the design of lighting strategies, underlining the transition towards sustainable agricultural technologies [6,127].
Finally, terms related to physiological processes such as “plant growth” (21), “metabolism” (21), and “biomass” (21) highlight the importance of understanding the internal mechanisms of plants under different light conditions [128,129]. Key words such as “light intensity” (25), “light quality” (19), and “photon flux density” (13) reinforce the need to adjust specific light parameters to maximize crop yield and quality [130,131]. Collectively, the wordcloud and table show how this area of research connects plant biology, light technology, and energy sustainability in an interdisciplinary framework that seeks to transform protected agriculture.
3.10. Relevant Publication Sources
The analysis of the preferred publication sources for studies related to greenhouse lighting technologies reveals a diversity of scientific journals with different approaches and impact levels (Table 3). First, the journal Acta Horticulturae stands out, with the highest number of published papers out of 162, reflecting its centrality in the field. However, its ranking in quartile 4 (Q4) in the SJR index and its H-index of 71 suggest that, although it is widely used by the academic community to disseminate research, its impact and international visibility are relatively limited compared to other journals in the listing. This may be attributed to the fact that Acta Horticulturae primarily serves as a repository for conference proceedings and is not an open-access journal, which limits its visibility and reduces its ability to generate high-impact citations.
On the other hand, Scientia Horticulturae, published by Elsevier B.V., is positioned as one of the most prestigious journals in the field of horticulture. Ranked in quartile 1 (Q1) and with an H-index of 145, it combines high impact and global visibility with the ability to attract quality research. Its focus on innovative aspects of horticulture, including advanced lighting technologies, explains its relevance as a key publication source. This contrast between Acta Horticulturae and Scientia Horticulturae is evidence of how top quartile placement and a high H-index not only represent the prestige of the journal but also its ability to influence the advancement of the field through the dissemination of highly cited research.
HortScience, with 34 papers and a Q2 ranking, occupies an intermediate position in terms of impact. Its H-index of 105 places it as a solid publication within the horticultural field, especially in the United States, where it is based. On the other hand, journals such as Frontiers in Plant Science, with 17 publications, and Horticulturae, with 15, stand out for their Q1 ranking and H-index values of 216 and 36, respectively. This reflects their attractiveness both for researchers seeking to publish in high-impact journals and for horticulture-specific studies. Frontiers in Plant Science, in particular, stands out for addressing interdisciplinary research with direct applications in plant biology.
Finally, journals such as Biosystems Engineering, Environmental and Experimental Botany, and Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, all ranked Q1, underscore the growing interest in the integration of advanced technologies in protected agriculture. These journals have high H-index values (132, 167, and 168, respectively), making them highly influential platforms in areas such as automated systems design, environmental impact, and computational technologies applied to agriculture. Overall, the analysis of these publication sources shows a clear trend towards the use of high-impact journals in Q1, which prioritize interdisciplinary and practical application research, while journals such as Acta Horticulturae maintain their relevance by serving as a forum for broad academic exchange, although with lower international impact.
3.11. Citation Network Between Publication Sources
The analysis of the citation network between publication sources reveals a complex structure of academic interactions in the field of greenhouse lighting technologies (Figure 9). In this context, each node represents a scientific journal, while the links indicate the citation relationship between them. The link strength, quantified as “total link strength”, measures the intensity of these connections, reflecting the frequency and relevance of mutual citations [46,132]. In this analysis, journals with higher numbers of papers and citations also tend to have stronger links, indicating their central influence in the field.
Acta Horticulturae stands out as the most prominent node, with 162 published papers, 1551 citations, and a total link strength of 209. This indicates its centrality as a key research repository, although its overall impact may be limited by its inclusion in quartile 4 (Q4). The network shows that this journal maintains a strong connection with Scientia Horticulturae (41 papers, 1474 citations, and a linkage strength of 131), suggesting that both journals share a complementary relationship, serving as main platforms for the dissemination of horticultural research, albeit with different levels of impact and international visibility.
On the other hand, journals ranked in quartile 1 (Q1) such as Frontiers in Plant Science and Biosystems Engineering, with 17 and eight papers, respectively, present a lower number of publications but show high impact based on the number of citations (539 and 439, respectively) and significant linkage strength (38 and 29). This reflects their strategic position as high-quality sources that, although less productive in terms of volume, attract highly cited research and contribute to the interdisciplinary expansion of the field, especially in the integration of technology with plant biology.
Finally, journals such as HortScience (34 papers, 1474 citations, link strength 81) and Environmental and Experimental Botany (six papers, 209 citations, link strength 19) reinforce the relevance of publications in horticulture and botanical studies. The connection between these journals and others such as Horticulturae and Agronomy, both with high impact in Q1, demonstrates the synergy between research focused on technical, biological, and sustainable aspects. In general, this network evidences a hierarchy in the influence of journals, where publications with high citation values and linkage strength act as central nodes, facilitating knowledge transfer between disciplines and strengthening the development of the field of horticulture and protected agriculture.
3.12. Keyword Co-Occurrence Graph Analysis
The presented co-occurrence graph, generated with the VOSviewer tool, provides a detailed overview of the main lines of research in the field of greenhouse lighting [46]. This analysis makes it possible to identify the conceptual connections between key terms, reflecting the thematic structure of this field and its priority areas of focus [44]. The nodes represent keywords, with sizes proportional to their frequency of use in the documents analyzed (Figure 10). Links indicate the co-occurrence of terms, while colors group terms into clusters representing interrelated subtopics [42,54]. This bibliometric analysis provides a comprehensive overview of the main lines of research in greenhouse lighting. Each cluster represents a specific topic, from energy efficiency and automation to the impact of light on plant physiology and integrated resource management. This interdisciplinary approach is essential to address global challenges such as climate change and food security, and to move towards a more sustainable and efficient protected agriculture.
The co-occurrence plot evidences a strong interrelationship between the clusters, highlighting that greenhouse lighting research is not fragmented but spans multiple disciplines. For example, terms such as photosynthesis and light act as connection points between the blue, green, and red clusters, linking physiological aspects of plants with lighting technologies and energy efficiency. Likewise, greenhouses and controlled environment connect the yellow cluster with the others, showing the relevance of integrated systems in protected agriculture. For more detail, we discuss each cluster below:
Cluster 1, Red—Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Automation: This cluster is the central core of the graph, highlighting terms such as “greenhouses”, “lighting”, “artificial lighting”, “energy efficiency”, and “controlled environment”. Research in this area focuses on integrating advanced artificial lighting technologies, such as LED lights, into protected agriculture systems to optimize energy consumption [133,134]. Words such as “costs” and “economic analysis” also reflect the interest in evaluating the economic profitability of these technologies [135,136], while other terms such as “optimal controls” and “environmental technology” may indicate that there is an effort to develop automated and sustainable systems that allow precise control of environmental conditions in greenhouses [137,138]. In this cluster, terms such as “electric power utilization” and “energy use” are incorporated, which evidences a focus on the quantification and reduction of the environmental impact derived from energy consumption [139,140]. Connections with other clusters, such as those related to plant physiology, show how energy efficiency not only has economic implications, but also direct effects on crop productivity [141,142,143]. In summary, this cluster underlines the fundamental role of artificial lighting in the development of intelligent and sustainable agricultural systems.
Cluster 2, Green—Impact of Light on Crop Growth and Morphology: This cluster highlights research aimed at understanding how light quality, intensity, and distribution affect crop development [144,145]. Keywords such as “light-emitting diodes (LEDs)”, “light quality”, “light effect”, “morphology”, and “daily light integral (DLI)” are central to this cluster. This cluster emphasizes how different light spectra can optimize processes such as photosynthesis, flowering, and biomass formation [60,146,147]. Likewise, the inclusion of specific crops such as “Lycopersicon esculentum”, “Lactuta sativa”, “Cucumis sativus”, and “Chrysanthemum” reflect the fact that these species have been the main participants in the studies on illumination in greenhouse crops [148,149,150,151]. Other terms such as “interlighting” and “assimilation lighting” suggest that there is a particular focus on innovative technologies that provide light to specific areas of the plant canopy, improving photosynthetic efficiency in parts of the plant that usually receive less light [152,153,154]. Therefore, the studies of this cluster are key to advances in the design of lighting systems adapted to the specific needs of crops, promoting not only a higher yield, but also a better quality of agricultural products.
Cluster 3, Blue—Plant Physiology and Photosynthetic Processes: This cluster deals with the biochemical and physiological fundamentals of plants; therefore, terms such as “photosynthesis”, “chlorophyll”, “photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD)”, “biomass”, and “metabolism” stand out. This group of terms reflects that the studies analyze the importance of light in the processes essential for plant growth, such as the absorption of light energy by chlorophyll and the conversion of this energy into biomass [155,156,157]. In addition, the presence of terms related to plant chemistry, such as “chlorophyll a”, “pigments”, and “carotenoids”, suggest that there is a particular interest of researchers in the study of the effects of light on the nutritional quality of crops, including the accumulation of antioxidants and other bioactive compounds [158,159]. This cluster also includes the term “seedling”, indicating that there may be research focused on early stages of plant development and their response to light conditions [160,161]. The connection of this cluster with the groups focused on lighting technologies highlights the importance of designing systems that not only optimize energy efficiency but also maximize the use of light by plants.
Cluster 4, Yellow—Resource Management and Integrated Efficiency: This cluster focuses on the integration of lighting technologies with other agricultural management practices. Terms such as “energy use efficiency”, “water use efficiency”, and “irrigation” show that research in this cluster focuses not only on light but also on how the effect of light interacts with other critical resources such as water and its management [162,163]. The inclusion of “daily light integral (DLI)” and “light distribution” reflect a focus on light uniformity, highlighting its impact on crop productivity [164,165]. This cluster also addresses the environmental impact of lighting technologies, as suggested by terms such as “energy use” and “environmental impact”. The combination of these elements signals an effort to develop greenhouse systems that are sustainable in terms of both energy and water [166,167]. This cluster is intrinsically connected to the red and green clusters, showing how integrated resource management and light optimization can contribute to a more holistic approach to greenhouse production.
3.13. Most Cited Documents
The analysis of the 10 most cited papers (Table 4) provides an academic overview of the advances and challenges of greenhouse lighting, mainly in the horticultural sector. In the work developed in article 1, the importance of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) is highlighted as one of the most significant advances in horticultural lighting in recent decades. LEDs not only allow precise control of the light spectrum but also reduce heat emissions and provide longevity in their use. These characteristics have made them an ideal tool for research in controlled environments, vertical agriculture, and greenhouses, where their ability to adapt wavelengths to specific photoreceptors improves crop production and quality.
On the other hand, article 2 addresses a comparative analysis between plant factories and traditional greenhouses, evaluating their efficiency in the use of resources such as energy, water, CO2, and land. Although plant factories demonstrate greater efficiency in the use of these resources, their energy demand is significantly higher than that of greenhouses, particularly in regions where solar energy is more accessible. This study highlights the need to continue to optimize the energy efficiency of LEDs and suggests that these advances alone may not be sufficient to ensure the economic viability of plant factories. This paper also highlights the importance of considering climatic location and energy costs in the implementation of LED technologies for urban agriculture.
Article 3 presents an analysis of the effects of LED light spectra on plant physiology and secondary metabolism, demonstrating their potential to modulate plant morphology and enhance nutritional quality. This article points out that, although LEDs are highly efficient in controlled environments, their integration in greenhouses must consider interactions with natural light, as this can attenuate the effects of specific spectra. It also highlights the importance of designing dynamic light modules to adjust to changing daylight conditions and crop development stages. This analysis underscores the need for more comprehensive approaches to adapt LEDs to complex agricultural systems.
On the other hand, article 4 introduces the concept of “rapid breeding” (SB), which combines prolonged lighting with early harvesting protocols to shorten crop cycles in species such as wheat, oats, and quinoa. LEDs play a crucial role in this process by allowing control of photoperiod and light intensity to promote rapid growth in closed production systems. This article highlights how LEDs not only contribute to production but also to genomics research and the development of resilient crops, positioning them as a versatile technology in modern agriculture.
Continuing this line of research, article 5 reviews recent LED applications in horticulture and floriculture, from greenhouse production to vertical farming. Emphasis is placed on how LEDs positively impact crop yields, phytochemical content, and postharvest quality, as well as their ability to improve energy efficiency and reduce operating costs. This article highlights the versatility of LEDs, not only to optimize production, but also to meet specific quality demands in different crops. Article 6 explores photomorphogenesis, a phenomenon driven by LED-controlled light spectra, and how this knowledge can be applied to improve the quality and yield of vegetable and ornamental crops. The ability of LEDs to modulate intensity and spectral composition offers opportunities to customize lighting strategies to the specific requirements of individual crops.
In the work developed in article 7, the effects of different light qualities on the growth of species such as tomato, lettuce, and chrysanthemum are examined, finding that blue light reduces plant height and dry weight, while green and yellow light favor leaf expansion. This study emphasizes the importance of selecting specific light spectra to optimize particular crop characteristics and highlights the practical implications of these findings in the design of lighting strategies for ornamental and food crops. Likewise, in the research of article 8, the effects of intermediate lighting in cucumber crops are studied, highlighting how this technique, combined with zenithal lighting, can improve photosynthetic characteristics in the lower layers of the canopy. However, the article also reveals limitations, such as leaf curling and reduction of total biomass due to the LED spectrum used.
In article 9, the benefits of red–blue LEDs in the production of species such as basil and mint are presented, showing significant improvements in photosynthesis, fresh weight, and essential oil content. This article demonstrates how LEDs can overcome light limitations in urban agriculture and highlights their potential to improve the economic characteristics of crops by stimulating their secondary metabolism. Finally, the study presented in article 10 addresses the benefits of LEDs in crop production and conservation, highlighting their ability to induce bioactive compounds and enhance systemic acquired resistance in plants. It also highlights how LEDs can be used to optimize the nutritional quality of crops under conditions of low solar radiation, positioning them as a viable solution in protected agricultural systems.
3.14. Analysis of the Thematic Map
The analysis of thematic or strategic maps makes it possible to examine and characterize the progress and dynamics of research clusters by constructing strategic networks based on keyword co-occurrence analysis [175]. This approach serves as an indicator of the concentration of studies within specific topics or categories, classified according to their levels of centrality and density [176]. In this sense, the thematic map synthesizes the literature of a field of study into four well-defined typologies, as shown in Figure 11. The thematic map presented classifies the topics related to horticultural lighting according to two main dimensions: density of development and centrality. These dimensions make it possible to analyze the importance and level of development of the themes in the field of study. The topics in the upper right quadrant, called driving themes, are the most relevant and developed, representing key areas in the advancement of knowledge [177]. On the other hand, the topics in the lower left quadrant, known as emerging or declining topics, are less relevant and show limited development. The quadrant analysis provides a comprehensive view of the research landscape [44].
In the quadrant of motor topics, concepts such as “greenhouse”, “photosynthesis”, “LED”, “light-emitting diodes”, and “light quality” are highly central and developed. These themes reflect consolidated areas of research, where LED lighting plays a crucial role in optimizing photosynthesis and improving light quality in greenhouses [119,178]. These topics are fundamental for practical applications in protected agriculture, which positions them as pillars of technological development in the field. The high density indicates that these areas have reached a level of scientific maturity, driving significant advances in agricultural production and sustainability.
In contrast, the upper left quadrant groups niche topics, such as “radiation”, “photoperiod”, and “light intensity”. Although these topics are dense and have been extensively explored, their low centrality suggests that they are more specialized and not directly connected to the main structure of the field [179,180]. For example, photoperiod and radiation research addresses specific aspects of how plants respond to light in terms of development and yield. These topics offer opportunities for the development of specialized applications, such as the production of crops with unique characteristics or the optimization of lighting systems in controlled environments.
In the lower right quadrant, where the basic themes are found, concepts such as “artificial lighting”, “lettuce”, “chlorophyll fluorescence”, and “daily light integral” reflect the conceptual basis of the field. Although these topics have a high centrality, their low density suggests that they are still under development in terms of applied research and interdisciplinary exploration. This could be due to the need to combine these concepts with emerging areas of study, such as the integration of sensors to optimize the use of artificial light in protected crops [181]. The lower left quadrant, corresponding to emerging or declining topics, contains concepts such as “photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD)” and “efficiency”. Although these topics are less central and present a low density, their presence on the map indicates that they could represent areas of emerging research or, in some cases, areas in which scientific interest has declined. In the case of PPFD, its role as a key indicator for measuring the quality and quantity of light available for photosynthesis suggests that these areas could gain relevance if integrated into advanced horticultural lighting technologies [150].
The map also reflects the importance of controlled environment agriculture and plant factories as cross-cutting themes, present in both basic and engine quadrants. This indicates that these areas are fundamental to connect advanced topics, such as light quality optimization, with practical application in protected agriculture. This link strengthens the relevance of greenhouse research and urban agriculture, highlighting the need for an interdisciplinary approach [4,182,183].
3.15. Detection of Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Trends Through Multiple Correspondence Analysis
The multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) presented in the graph illustrates the relationships between key terms used in research related to horticultural lighting. This statistical method allows the identification of patterns and associations between the categorical variables represented [184], projecting them in a two-dimensional space defined by two main axes, labeled Dim 1 (28.65%) and Dim 2 (14.87%), which explain most of the observed variability. The arrangement of the terms in the graph and their grouping in clusters indicates similarities in the contexts in which they are used, reflecting the predominant thematic areas in the field [41].
Figure 12 shows three main clusters, each represented by a color. The red cluster groups terms related to artificial lighting and lighting effects, such as “light spectrum”, “artificial lighting”, and “chlorophyll”. This cluster seems to focus on studies on the optimization of light spectra to influence plant metabolism and development [158,185]. The blue cluster contains terms such as “hydroponics” and “vertical farming”, indicating a focus on production systems in controlled environments [186,187]. Finally, the smaller and less-dense green cluster includes concepts such as “chlorophyll fluorescence” and “simple-cell light”, suggesting a more specialized interest in the physiological and biochemical analysis of the response of plants to light [188].
From the perspective of knowledge gaps, the green cluster represents an area with lower subject density, which could suggest that physiological studies based on chlorophyll fluorescence and the impact of light on individual cells are less explored. This lack of research could be due to the need for specialized equipment and interdisciplinary approaches combining molecular biology and lighting technology. In addition, the limited development in this cluster suggests that future research could focus on the integration of fluorescence techniques to assess plant stress or photosynthetic efficiency under different light spectra.
Regarding future trends, the blue cluster highlights the increasing interest in advanced technologies such as vertical farming and hydroponic systems. This trend underscores the growing need for sustainable food production solutions in urban areas. However, there is still a gap in the integration of dynamic lighting and IoT sensors in these systems, which could be a promising direction for research. On the other hand, the red cluster, although dense, could benefit from studies exploring unconventional light spectra or specific spectral combinations to maximize nutritional quality and crop yield. These analyses underscore the need for interdisciplinary approaches that combine technology, biology, and sustainability to address emerging challenges in protected agriculture.
4. Conclusions
The bibliometric analysis performed demonstrates a substantial advance in research on greenhouse lighting technologies, particularly with the use of LED systems. These systems have proven to be highly effective in optimizing critical processes such as photosynthesis, morphogenesis, and biosynthesis of bioactive compounds, while significantly reducing energy consumption compared to traditional technologies.
The analysis identified a total of 656 documents and the collaboration of 1886 authors, reflecting intense scientific activity and technological innovation. The leading countries in scientific production are the United States, Canada, China, and the Netherlands, which account for 51% of scientific production. In contrast, regions such as Latin America, where only 2% of the published papers have been produced, lag behind in the development and application of these technologies, underscoring the need for greater investment in research and knowledge transfer in these contexts.
The integration of LED systems with sensors and digital controllers emerges as a key trend for protected agriculture, allowing precise control of the microclimate and optimizing the use of resources such as light, water, and nutrients. These innovations not only improve productivity but also contribute to the sustainability of agricultural systems by minimizing the associated environmental impacts.
5. International Collaborations: Challenges and Opportunities
The bibliometric analysis highlights significant disparities in international collaborations within the field of protected agriculture and artificial lighting technologies. While countries like the United States, the Netherlands, and China have established strong global partnerships, regions such as Latin America and parts of Africa show limited involvement in international research networks. This lack of collaboration can be attributed to multiple factors, including limited access to funding, disparities in research infrastructure, and insufficient platforms for fostering cross-regional partnerships.
Addressing these challenges is crucial for advancing innovation and ensuring the equitable dissemination of knowledge and technologies. Strengthening international collaborations would enable regions with limited resources to access cutting-edge advancements, share regional insights, and adapt global technologies to local contexts. Proposed strategies to enhance global partnerships include establishing dedicated funding programs for collaborative research, creating international consortia for specific topics such as LED lighting and greenhouse automation, and promoting knowledge exchange through workshops, joint publications, and regional conferences.
In conclusion, fostering stronger international collaborations is essential for bridging the gap in technological adoption and innovation between developed and developing regions. By addressing the reasons for low collaboration and implementing targeted strategies to expand global partnerships, the research community can collectively contribute to the sustainable advancement of protected agriculture worldwide.
6. Recommendations for the Implementation of These Technologies in Developing Countries
It is essential to establish technology transfer programs that include training, workshops, and practical demonstrations for farmers and technicians in countries such as Colombia. This will allow the adoption of advanced technologies, such as LED systems integrated with sensors and controllers, optimizing the productivity and sustainability of protected agriculture systems. In addition, it is suggested that partnerships between universities, research centers, and companies in the agricultural sector be fostered to ensure equitable access to these innovations.
Governments must play a key role in promoting sustainable technologies in protected agriculture through comprehensive public policies that address both artificial lighting and the technological evolution of greenhouses. These policies should include subsidies and tax incentives for the installation of efficient systems, such as LED technologies integrated with sensors and controllers, to optimize resource use and reduce environmental impact. Additionally, accessible credit lines could be established for producers interested in modernizing their greenhouses, including transitioning to technologically advanced structures like automated greenhouses and climate control systems. In addition, it is imperative to develop and implement technical standards that regulate both the use of lighting technologies and advanced greenhouse systems, tailoring them to the specific needs of crops and regions. This approach would not only ensure efficient and context-specific use but also help overcome the technological access barriers currently faced by small- and medium-sized producers in developing countries.
Finally, it is essential to prioritize studies that adapt lighting technologies to the climatic, social, and economic characteristics of countries in developing regions. This research should focus on identifying spectral combinations, light intensities, and management strategies that maximize energy efficiency and agricultural productivity. In addition, impact assessments should be conducted to demonstrate the economic and environmental benefits of these technologies, encouraging their acceptance among local producers.
7. Limitations of the Study and Future Approaches to Address Them
The exclusive use of Scopus as the database for this bibliometric review is justified by several reasons that ensure the quality and focus of the analysis. Scopus is one of the most robust and widely recognized academic databases globally, encompassing a vast number of high-quality peer-reviewed publications across diverse disciplines. Its coverage includes scientific journals, conferences, book chapters, and relevant publications in agricultural sciences, engineering, and technology, making it particularly suitable for studying interdisciplinary topics such as lighting technologies in protected agriculture. Additionally, Scopus provides advanced tools for metadata extraction, facilitating detailed bibliometric analyses, including identifying publication trends, collaboration networks, predominant keywords, and citations. These features allow for a comprehensive and structured overview of the state of the art in the field of study. Another key advantage of using Scopus is its extensive geographical and thematic coverage, ensuring the inclusion of research from diverse contexts and regions. While this decision may exclude relevant literature indexed in other databases, Scopus remains a reliable option for generating consistent, high-quality results aligned with the objectives of a bibliometric review.
Despite the strengths mentioned, this bibliometric review has limitations that must be acknowledged. One of the primary limitations is the exclusion of relevant literature indexed in other databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, or Google Scholar, or in sources of gray literature. This exclusion may result in the omission of significant studies, particularly those published in languages other than English or in regional journals not indexed in Scopus. Additionally, the bibliometric focus does not allow for in-depth technical, experimental, or economic analyses of lighting technologies, such as comparisons between HPS and LED systems in terms of environmental impact, operating costs, and productivity under different climatic and economic contexts.
To address these limitations, future work will incorporate other academic databases, such as Web of Science and Google Scholar, enabling a broader inclusion of literature and strengthening the representativeness of the results. Furthermore, gray literature sources and studies in regional languages will be explored to enhance thematic and geographical coverage. Regarding the technical and economic aspects of lighting technologies, these will be addressed in detail in the second part of this research, which will systematically analyze the 657 documents identified in this initial review. This approach will ensure a more comprehensive evaluation of the state of the art, complementing the findings obtained in this first bibliometric stage.
Conceptualization, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G., L.A.A.; methodology, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; software, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; validation, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; formal analysis, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; investigation, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; resources, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; data curation, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; writing—original draft preparation, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; writing---review and editing, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; visualization, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; supervision, E.V., J.J.E., J.R., L.G., G.A., E.B., C.E.A.-R., J.F.-V., M.A., R.G. and L.A.A.; project administration, L.A.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The data are contained in the article. The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.
The authors would like to thank the Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria—AGROSAVIA and other institutions with which the external authors are associated for their technical support in carrying out this research. This study is a review article developed by the authors’ own initiative, but its information does not include topics associated with food products specific to any of the corporation’s research projects.
Author John Javier Espitia, Gina Amado, Linda Gomez, Jader Rodriguez and Edwin Villagran were employed by the company Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria.Author Esteban Baeza was employed by the company COEXPHAL. The remaining authors declarethat the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships thatcould be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Institutions with the highest scientific productivity.
| Institution | Number of Documents Published | Website |
|---|---|---|
| Wageningen University & Research | 63 | |
| Michigan State University | 33 | |
| Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada | 31 | |
| Harrow Research and Development Centre | 24 | |
| Purdue University | 21 | |
| Université Laval | 20 | |
| University of Georgia | 17 | |
| Cornell University | 16 | |
| Chiba University | 14 | |
| University of Guelph | 14 |
Authors with the highest number of published papers.
| Author | Number of Documents | Total Citations | H-Index | Affiliation | Country |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Runkle, E.S. | 22 | 3469 | 34 | Michigan State University | United States |
| Hao, X. | 16 | 1303 | 20 | Harrow Research and Development Centre | Canada |
| Marcelis, L.F.M. | 14 | 8951 | 53 | Wageningen University & Research | Netherlands |
| Berkovich, Y.A. | 14 | 402 | 11 | Institute for Biomedical Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences | Russia |
| Dorais, M. | 13 | 3075 | 31 | Université Laval | Canada |
| Heuvelink, E. | 12 | 6787 | 45 | Wageningen University & Research | Netherlands |
| Lopez, R.G. | 12 | 1803 | 23 | Michigan State University | United States |
| van Iersel, M.W. | 11 | 4525 | 38 | University of Georgia | United States |
| Zheng, Y. | 10 | 2290 | 38 | Ontario Agricultural College | Canada |
| Bergstrand, K.J. | 9 | 747 | 16 | Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet | Sweden |
Sources of publication most selected by the authors.
| Journal | No. of Documents | Publisher | SJR Ranking | H-Index | Country |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acta Horticulturae | 162 | International Society for Horticultural Science | Q4 | 71 | Belgium |
| Scientia Horticulturae | 41 | Elsevier B.V. | Q1 | 145 | Netherlands |
| HortScience | 34 | American Society for Horticultural Science | Q2 | 105 | United States |
| Frontiers in Plant Science | 17 | Frontiers Media SA | Q1 | 216 | Switzerland |
| Horticulturae | 15 | Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI) | Q1 | 36 | Switzerland |
| Agronomy | 11 | Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI) | Q1 | 91 | Switzerland |
| Plants | 8 | Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI) | Q1 | 92 | Switzerland |
| Biosystems Engineering | 8 | Elsevier B.V. | Q1 | 132 | United States |
| Environmental and Experimental Botany | 7 | Elsevier B.V. | Q1 | 167 | Netherlands |
| Computers and Electronics in Agriculture | 7 | Elsevier B.V. | Q1 | 168 | Netherlands |
The analysis of the 10 most cited papers.
| Article | Title | Citations | Reference | Journal |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | “LED Lighting in Horticulture” | 573 | [ | HortScience |
| 2 | “Plant factories versus greenhouses: | 294 | [ | Agricultural Systems |
| 3 | “Spectral Effects of Artificial Light on Plant Physiology and Secondary Metabolism: A Review” | 289 | [ | HortScience |
| 4 | “Speed breeding in growth chambers and glasshouses for crop breeding and model plant research” | 283 | [ | Nature Protocols |
| 5 | “Current status and recent achievements in the field of horticulture with the use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs)” | 277 | [ | Scientia Horticulturae |
| 6 | “Light-Quality Manipulation to Control Plant Growth and Photomorphogenesis in Greenhouse Horticulture: The State of the Art and the Opportunities of Modern LED Systems” | 236 | [ | Journal of Plant Growth Regulation |
| 7 | “Effects of light quality on some greenhouse crops” | 192 | [ | Scientia Horticulturae |
| 8 | “The responses of light interception, photosynthesis and fruit yield of cucumber to LED-lighting within the canopy” | 181 | [ | Physiologia Plantarum |
| 9 | “High performance of vegetables, flowers, and medicinal plants in a red-blue LED incubator for indoor plant production” | 170 | [ | Agronomy for Sustainable Development |
| 10 | “An Overview of LEDs’ Effects on the Production of Bioactive Compounds and Crop Quality” | 149 | [ | Molecules |
Supplementary Materials
The following supporting information can be downloaded at
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; Espitia, John Javier 1 ; Rodriguez, Jader 1
; Gomez, Linda 1 ; Amado, Gina 1
; Baeza, Esteban 2 ; Cruz Ernesto Aguilar-Rodríguez 3
; Flores-Velazquez, Jorge 4
; Akrami, Mohammad 5
; Gil, Rodrigo 6 ; Arias, Luis Alejandro 7
1 Centro de Investigación Tibaitata, Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria—Agrosavia, km 14, vía Mosquera-Bogotá, Mosquera 250040, Colombia;
2 Departamento de i+d, COEXPHAL, Av. de las Cantinas, 2, 04746 La Mojonera, Spain;
3 Tecnologico Nacional de Mexico/ITS de los Reyes, Carretera Los Reyes-Jacona, Col. Libertad, Los Reyes de Salgado 60300, Mexico;
4 Department, Colegio de Postgraduados Campus Montecillos, Carretera Mexico Texcoco, km 36.52, Texcoco 56230, Mexico;
5 Department of Engineering, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QF, UK;
6 Departamento de Agronomía, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogota 111321, Colombia;
7 Centro de Bio-Sistemas, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Ingeniería, Universidad de Bogotá Jorge Tadeo Lozano, Chía 250008, Colombia