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Introduction
Large-scale ( > 1 megawatt [MW] capacity) onshore wind and ground-mounted photovoltaic solar energy (together, LSWS) development has grown rapidly over the past decade. The expansion of LSWS contributes essential progress on the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), particularly SDG 7. However, this growth may proceed without sufficiently assessing risks for local landscapes and biodiversity. For example, the United States (US) may need to increase its LSWS generation capacity by nearly two terawatts to achieve 100% carbon-free electricity by 2035 (Denholm et al., 2022). Such substantial growth of LSWS could impact up to 456,000 km2, an area larger than California (Denholm et al., 2022). Buildout of this magnitude may catalyze expansion into controversial development frontiers to accommodate these space-intensive technologies, such as prime agricultural land (SDG 2.4), forests, or land needed to protect biodiversity (SDG 15.1, 15.5).
Like other drivers of land use and land-cover change (LULCC), the development and operation of LSWS directly impacts native species and ecosystems (herein, biodiversity). Existing research documents habitat loss and fragmentation (Grodsky and Hernandez, 2020; Levin et al. 2023), native plant degradation (Grodsky and Hernandez, 2020), and animal mortality (Conkling et al., 2022) owing to LSWS. The magnitude and direction of such impacts remain understudied (Sanderson et al., 2002; Badichek, 2015; Hamilton et al., 2022), especially relative to other competing industrial-scale LULCCs like agriculture, fossil fuel extraction, or timber harvest. As such, LSWS stakeholders may voice varying perceptions of biodiversity risks during project siting and planning processes, which can ultimately influence acceptance and success (Susskind et al., 2022).
Though existing research compares public perceptions of biodiversity risks versus carbon-mitigation benefits of LSWS (Phadke, 2011; Carlisle et al., 2015; Delicado et al., 2016; van de Grift and Cuppen, 2022), the perceptions of professionals who interface with LSWS siting decisions and biodiversity considerations (herein, ‘practitioners’; e.g., representing governmental agencies, research entities, non-profits, resource managers, consultants, etc.) are not widely analyzed. Environmental laws, such as the Endangered Species Act, require that practitioners grapple directly with biodiversity trade-offs when building LSWS. The capability of these individuals to shape LSWS siting, design, and mitigation decisions communicates their pivotal role in speeding or slowing action on decarbonization. Given that perceptions can shape project support and opposition (Williams and Noyes, 2007), understanding how the...