1. Introduction
Social housing tenants exhibit heightened vulnerability to climate change due to inadequately designed and energy-inefficient dwellings, compounded by limited financial resources for adaptation and disproportionate exposure to climate-related risks, driven by entrenched socioeconomic and environmental inequities. The integration of energy-efficient and affordable technologies plays a crucial role in enhancing the well-being of tenants in social housing by ensuring comfort and safeguarding their health. Prioritising indoor environmental quality, especially at times of extreme temperatures and humidity, is essential for households facing economic challenges, as residents in such settings are susceptible to severe environmental and health hazards. There is growing evidence indicating that energy efficiency interventions could lead to significant health benefits for low-income occupants, especially young children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing health conditions [1,2]. A recent study by Hammerle [3] has demonstrated that focusing on vulnerable consumers not only addresses social equity concerns but also contributes to environmental sustainability.
Heat pumps stand out as an energy-efficient technology with a distinctive ability to reduce operational costs associated with energy use as well as markedly decrease greenhouse gas emissions and peak stresses on energy supply infrastructure compared with traditional fossil fuel-based air conditioning systems. Functionally, heat pumps excel in transferring energy from a lower temperature source to a higher temperature sink or vice versa, relying on an external energy input, typically electricity [4]. This characteristic makes heat pumps a pivotal technology in the pursuit of sustainable, equitable, and energy-efficient solutions for heating and cooling needs in social housing. Heat pumps, when combined with energy efficiency measures such as enhanced insulation and zonal heating controls, can have potential savings for tenants [5,6].
Currently, the academic investigation of heat pump technology implementation within the social housing sector in Australia is quite sparse. A study in Canberra (ACT) has investigated the adoption of reverse-cycle air conditioners as part of the adoption of new energy-efficient electric appliances and their influence on household energy use and emissions in social housing [3]. Few other studies have delved into pertinent topics such as fuel poverty as injustice [7], regional variations in fuel poverty experiences nationwide [8], impediments to securing assistance for energy efficiency in social housing [9], determinants of residential electricity consumption for social housing in Perth [10], indoor temperatures and energy use in New South Wales social housing [8], and the energy retrofit behaviour of social housing landlords in Victoria [1]. Nonetheless, the integration of heat pump technology in social housing in Australia remains underexplored.
Additionally, the degree to which occupants in social housing adopt and adapt to heat pumps is not well documented. User behaviour can significantly impact the efficiency and performance of heat pumps [11]. The efficiency of heat pumps, which rely on extracting heat from the environment to provide heating or cooling, is influenced by how the system is used and maintained. Heat pumps often have different operating modes, and using the correct mode for the season and outdoor conditions ensures optimal operation. Similarly, maintaining a consistent temperature instead of frequently adjusting the thermostat can improve heat pump efficiency. Setting the thermostat to a lower temperature in winter (or higher in summer) reduces the load on the system, enhancing performance.
This paper seeks to address the above-mentioned gap in the existing academic literature by conducting a systematic review of global studies focusing on the retrofitting or installation of heat pumps in social housing buildings. The insights and findings derived from these case studies will be analysed and contextualised to inform the application of such technologies within the Australian social housing sector. The three main research questions that will be answered through this review are:
How do user experiences, user behaviour, and user satisfaction impact the integration of heat pump technology in social housing context?
What are the challenges faced by users of heat pumps in social housing?
What lessons can be learned from international case studies on heat pump integration in social housing, and how can these lessons be adapted to the Australian context?
This research is novel in its exploration of heat pump implementation in social housing, addressing key knowledge gaps in user acceptance and adaptation. It examines operational, economic, social, and behavioural barriers affecting tenant uptake and satisfaction. Through a systematic review, this study comprehensively analyses the challenges and opportunities of integrating heat pumps, focusing on tenants’ perspectives. It highlights the importance of tenant education, technical support, and effective communication for maximising benefits. The findings provide valuable insights for policy-makers and researchers, promoting energy efficiency, guiding sustainable energy practices, and ultimately enhancing tenant well-being while contributing to broader environmental and social goals.
The structure of the remaining paper is as follows. Section 2 explains the methodology employed to undertake this comprehensive review, providing a detailed account of the approach taken. Section 3 systematically presents the analysis derived from the data, offering a rigorous examination of the findings. Section 4 provides a conclusion on the integration of heat pumps in social housing in Australia.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Design
This study adopts a systematic review approach to investigate the impact of heat pump installations in social housing on tenant well-being, energy consumption, and cost-effectiveness. The methodology is designed to comprehensively synthesise existing research findings, identify knowledge gaps, and highlight key themes and patterns in the literature.
2.2. Data Sources and Search Strategy
A comprehensive literature search was conducted using academic databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, ProQuest, and EBSCOhost. Additionally, journal-specific websites, such as Energy and Buildings, Energy Efficiency, and Energy Policy, were explored to identify studies focusing on heat pump technology and social housing.
Search terms: the search utilised specific terms, including “Heat Pumps”, “Social Housing”, “Public Housing”, “Housing Association”, and “Council Housing.” Boolean operators (AND, OR) were used to refine the search and ensure comprehensive coverage.
Inclusion criteria: peer-reviewed journal articles, case studies, and conference papers written in English and published within the last ten years (2014–2024) were included.
Exclusion criteria: grey literature, such as government reports and industry publications, were excluded to maintain a focus on academic and peer-reviewed sources.
The initial search yielded a total of 236 records, which were screened for relevance. Duplicates were removed, and titles and abstracts were assessed against the inclusion criteria. A final set of 69 studies was selected for in-depth review and thematic analysis. See Figure 1.
2.3. Data Collection and Management
The data from selected studies were systematically organised into an Excel spreadsheet, capturing key metadata, including title and abstract, authors and affiliations, year of publication (See Figure 2 and Figure 3), geographic location of the study, study design and sample size, main findings and conclusions, and keywords and thematic codes.
The qualitative software package QSR Nvivo (Version 12) was employed to facilitate the coding and thematic analysis of textual data, allowing for the systematic sorting and comparison of key themes.
2.4. Qualitative Data Analysis
This study used a framework analysis to explore and interpret the data, which involved the following steps:
Familiarisation: the research team thoroughly read and re-read the selected studies to become familiar with the content.
Coding: thematic codes were applied to identify recurring patterns and issues. This process involved both inductive (emerging themes from the data) and deductive (predefined themes from the existing literature) coding.
Categorisation: coded data were grouped into key themes, such as user experiences with heat pumps, technical challenges, financial challenges, and social and behavioural challenges.
Charting: a matrix was created to map out key themes across different studies, providing a structured overview of the findings.
Interpretation: patterns were interpreted to understand the broader implications of heat pump technology in social housing, focusing on both opportunities and challenges.
Figure 3 illustrates the various research methods employed in the selected studies. The graph indicates that the majority of these studies have utilised energy analysis as a primary methodology, encompassing both modelling approaches and real-world case studies. A significant proportion of the studies have also integrated interviews and surveys alongside energy analysis to provide a more comprehensive perspective. Additionally, a subset of studies has focused exclusively on tenant and stakeholder interviews. Other methodologies represented include environmental analysis, systematic reviews of the existing literature, and economic analysis, reflecting the diverse approaches undertaken to investigate the research objectives.
3. Results
The following section discusses some of the exploratory themes emerging from the above review. This provides a comprehensive reference point, encapsulating multifaceted elements crucial for the successful adoption of heat pump technology in social housing.
3.1. Types of Heat Pumps for Social Housing
This section explores the use of energy-efficient technologies in social housing, focusing on heat pumps and their role in improving energy performance and reducing carbon emissions. It discusses different types of heat pumps, including ground-source and air-source systems, and their benefits, challenges, and suitability for retrofitting older buildings. Additionally, this section examines hybrid systems, district heating solutions, and renewable energy technologies like photovoltaic panels integrated with heat pumps. The discussion highlights the importance of tenant understanding and engagement in ensuring the successful adoption and effective use of these technologies.
The review indicates that the majority of the research papers (85%) originate from European countries, including the UK, Italy, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands. The remaining 15% include Australia, USA, China, New Zealand, and Malaysia (See Figure 4). Furthermore, it was observed that social housing in these studies predominantly consists of older building stock, constructed during the 1970s and 1980s. The installation of heat pumps in these buildings is commonly undertaken as part of retrofitting efforts aimed at enhancing the energy efficiency of these aging structures.
These studies have shown that there are many different types of heat pumps that can be integrated into social housing for both improving the energy efficiency of these buildings and decarbonising the housing industry.
Ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs) are particularly well suited for large-scale retrofitting projects, such as social housing developments, where multiple buildings require service. They have a seasonal coefficient of performance of 3–5. The installation of GSHP systems with a shared ground loop can provide a cost-effective and efficient solution for retrofitting several buildings simultaneously. Ground temperatures, which generally remain stable between 10 and 15 °C at a depth of several meters, offer a reliable source for heat exchange [12]. This constant temperature allows GSHPs to operate efficiently throughout the year, largely being unaffected by extreme weather conditions. As a result, GSHPs consistently deliver optimal performance in both hot and cold climates, making them ideal for retrofitting buildings in regions with harsh winters or significant seasonal temperature fluctuations. Although GSHPs typically involve higher upfront installation costs, they yield substantial long-term energy savings due to their superior efficiency and lower operating costs. Over the lifespan of the system, the accrued cost savings can offset the initial investment, making GSHPs a more economical choice in the long term [13,14].
The integration of air-source heat pumps (ASHPs) in social housing presents both opportunities and challenges in improving their energy efficiency [15]. While ASHPs offer a greener alternative to traditional gas boilers by reducing carbon emissions by around 12%, [16], their financial viability often depends on government incentives in the form of grants and rebates, tax credits, and zero-interest loans. Without such subsidies, operating costs can be higher than traditional systems, which poses challenges for tenants in social housing, where financial considerations are critical [15,17]. ASHPs are especially suitable for high-density housing, where ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs) may not be feasible due to space constraints. However, their success hinges on tenant understanding and engagement. Tenants who were well informed about ASHP operation reported greater satisfaction and achieved more significant energy savings. This highlights the crucial role of tenant education and support in ensuring that the technology delivers its promised benefits [18,19].
In regions with fluctuating heating demands, such as Mediterranean climates, hybrid systems that combine heat pumps with natural gas boilers offer a more flexible solution [20,21]. Research has found that these systems could reduce primary energy consumption by up to 28%, benefitting tenants with more efficient heating during colder months and gas support during periods of reduced heat pump performance. However, as with standalone systems, the success of hybrid systems depends largely on tenant behaviour and understanding of how to use them effectively [22,23,24].
District heating systems (DHSs), which centralise heating for multiple buildings, provide another pathway for decarbonising air conditioning in social housing [22,25,26]. DHSs offer tenants consistent and reliable heating without requiring individual management, making them particularly attractive for social housing residents who may lack the time or technical knowledge to manage their heating systems. This reduced operational burden, combined with lower energy costs, makes district heating an appealing option for social housing communities [27,28,29]. Research examined a system using renewable energy sources, including air-to-water and ground-source heat pumps, in a mixed-use neighbourhood with social housing [27,28]. The proposed strategy could cover about 35% of the annual thermal energy demand with renewable sources, particularly for social housing buildings and schools.
Heat pumps, particularly ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs) for district heating, have shown great potential for reducing energy consumption in social housing [12,30]. A study has found that integrating GSHPs with radiant floor heating in retrofit projects offered significant energy savings [31]. They can achieve efficiency rates of up to 400%, meaning that they produce four units of energy for every unit of electricity consumed.
Renewable energy technologies, such as photovoltaic (PV) panels combined with heat pumps, offer another strategy for improving energy efficiency in large-scale social housing complexes [5,32,33,34]. A case study from Zaragoza, Spain, demonstrated that such systems could supply up to 80% of a building’s domestic hot water demand while reducing CO2 emissions and energy costs for tenants [35]. Tenants living in large housing complexes where such systems are installed can expect better climate control and reduced energy bills. However, the effectiveness of these systems, as shown in the Northern Italian case study, can also be influenced by how well tenants understand and use them, alongside external factors like local climate conditions [36,37,38]. The success of renewable energy systems depends on tenant understanding and engagement. Without proper education on how to use these systems, tenants may not fully realise the potential benefits.
Emerging innovations in heat pump technology, such as variable-speed compressors, advanced refrigerants, and the integration of smart technology, are significantly enhancing system efficiency and performance. Variable-speed compressors enable heat pumps to dynamically adjust their output based on demand, leading to more efficient operation by reducing energy consumption during low-demand periods and improving comfort by maintaining consistent temperatures. Advanced refrigerants, including low-global warming potential (GWP) fluids, are replacing traditional refrigerants, contributing to reduced environmental impact and better energy performance. The integration of smart technology with intelligent control and connectivity further optimises heat pump systems. With features such as remote monitoring, predictive maintenance, and user-customised settings, these systems allow for real-time adjustments to optimise energy use, reduce operational costs, and improve overall system lifespan. Together, these innovations are driving the evolution of heat pumps, making them increasingly energy-efficient, environmentally friendly, and adaptable to modern smart homes and buildings.
Overall, while heat pumps and other energy-efficient technologies hold considerable potential for reducing carbon emissions and enhancing living conditions in social housing, their effectiveness is contingent upon tenant understanding, engagement, and behaviour. Therefore, the subsequent sections will examine the experiences of users with heat pumps, as well as the motivations and barriers that influence their adoption and use.
3.2. Energy Savings and Efficiencies of Heat Pumps in Various Climate Types
An analysis of the selected studies was undertaken to examine and evaluate the performance of various heat pump types across different climate zones. The results highlight the substantial energy savings and efficiency enhancements associated with the deployment of diverse heat pump systems under varying climatic conditions and building contexts. Table 1 illustrates the variations in system efficiencies across different heat pump technologies within distinct climate zones. This table provides a valuable resource for assessing the performance of heat pumps in diverse climatic regions, including potential applications within Australian climate zones.
The table provides an analysis of heat pump efficiencies across various climates. In Mediterranean climates, systems such as air-to-water heat pumps (AWHPs) and water-to-water heat pumps (WWHPs) achieve COPs ranging between 2.5 and 4.4, with energy savings of up to 73% using active and passive strategies. In temperate climates, AWHPs exhibit SCOPs of 3.0–3.5, reducing energy demands by 42–64%, although certain systems underperform, like exhaust air heat pumps in the UK, with COPs as low as 1.4. In humid subtropical regions, geothermal systems show optimised COPs of up to 4.82, offering significant energy reductions. In colder sub-arctic and continental climates, systems like Sweden’s exhaust air heat pumps achieve a COP of 4.36 and meet 96% of domestic hot water demands. Temperate maritime climates reveal varying performances, with winter COPs of 2.0–3.0 and improved efficiencies during mild conditions (COPs of 3.5–4.5). Overall, system performance varies based on climate, with Mediterranean and temperate climates benefitting the most from heat pump installations.
A further analysis of the environmental performance of a few heat pumps was carried out, and the results are presented in the Table 2. The analysis highlights the significant potential of heat pump technologies in reducing CO2 emissions across diverse climates, with reductions ranging from 53% to 75% when integrated with renewable energy sources. Ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs) achieved the highest reductions in excess-heat-dominated systems, while air-to-water and air-source heat pumps also showed substantial emissions savings, especially when replacing fossil fuel systems. However, the effectiveness of these systems depends on local energy policies, funding, and integration with renewable energy. In regions like the UK, limited grant schemes constrained emissions reductions to 42%, highlighting the importance of robust financial support. Overall, heat pumps, paired with renewable energy and supportive policies, offer a viable pathway for decarbonising heating systems.
3.3. User Experiences with Heat Pumps
This section examines user experiences and challenges associated with adopting heat pump technology, focusing on economic impact, thermal comfort, indoor air quality, and technological complexity. While heat pumps offer significant benefits in energy efficiency and environmental impact, their adoption is often hindered by financial and operational concerns.
The appeal of heat pumps lies in their energy efficiency and long-term cost savings, often promoted by manufacturers and landlords. However, users face challenges such as high installation costs, unexpected expenses, and misleading upfront estimates [48,49]. Retrofitting requirements further increase costs, while concerns over maintenance liabilities and potential rent hikes add to user apprehension [50].
Heat pump cost savings vary by region, influenced by energy prices, heating patterns, and system performance. In New South Wales, Australia, high electricity costs (30 cents/kWh) compared with gas (AUD 4 cents/MJ) may limit savings. Performance depends on climate, with a COP of 2 to 4 in temperatures from −15 °C to +7 °C [40,41]. While heat pumps can cut energy use by two-thirds when replacing electric heating, lifetime savings are most evident in moderate climates with lower installation costs and higher energy prices. In extreme climates or areas with cheap energy, conventional systems may be more cost-effective [51].
While cost influences heat pump adoption, enhanced indoor comfort is a key factor in user experience [44,52]. Unlike traditional heating systems—oil, electric, wood, or solid fuel—heat pumps provide consistent warmth and improved air quality. Oil-based systems heat unevenly and lower humidity, while electric heaters create localised, dry heat. Wood and solid-fuel systems require manual feeding and emit pollutants. In contrast, heat pumps deliver uniform warmth, maintain humidity, and operate quietly. Their compatibility with low-temperature radiators and underfloor heating further enhances performance, making them an energy-efficient, comfortable, and cleaner alternative to conventional heating.
Preprogrammed heat pump settings minimise temperature fluctuations, ensuring consistent warmth and greater thermal comfort than traditional heating systems. By aligning with user preferences, they provide steady indoor temperatures, benefitting social housing tenants, particularly those with health conditions sensitive to temperature changes [53]. This stability benefits social housing tenants, particularly those unemployed or with chronic health conditions sensitive to temperature changes, by minimising hourly and day-to-night temperature variations and providing a more comfortable living environment [45,48].
Heat pumps also enhance indoor air quality (IAQ) by reducing particulate matter, moisture, and condensation—common issues with oil, wood, and solid-fuel heating [44,54]. This creates a healthier living environment, especially by lowering surface condensation and morning humidity. However, IAQ is also influenced by climate and occupant behaviours, such as ventilation practices [54,55].
The impact of heat pumps on IAQ depends on type and design. Air-source heat pumps (ASHPs) filter air but do not introduce fresh air unless paired with ventilation. Air-to-water heat pumps (AWHPs) provide heating, hot water, and cooling while reducing indoor pollution and allergens. Ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs) limit allergen spread but require additional ventilation for fresh air. Ductless mini-split heat pumps improve IAQ by filtering air in individual zones. Systems with integrated ventilation, like heat recovery (HRV) or energy recovery ventilation (ERV), offer the best IAQ benefits by maintaining airflow and efficiency.
Users often find heat pump interfaces complex, describing them as ‘baffling.’ While more automated than traditional systems, social housing tenants hesitate to adjust settings, fearing they might break the system [43,56]. This reluctance stems from self-doubt in technical abilities, though many feel comfortable using the override function for simple temperature adjustments, preferring minimal interaction with advanced controls [57,58].
Users often struggle with operating heat pumps, relying on landlords or knowledgeable neighbours for help [56]. Common complaints include confusing controls, difficulty optimising efficiency, and inadequate technical support [59]. Poor instructions and unclear cost expectations contribute to dissatisfaction, with some users resorting to opening windows to manage excessive warmth—often due to thermostat placement issues or lack of understanding [60].
The installation of heat pumps often causes significant disruptions for tenants, which can impact their willingness to adopt the technology. These disruptions, whether real or perceived, can lead some residents to refuse access for installation. The extent of disruption largely depends on the type of pre-existing heating system. Transitioning from open fires to heat pumps is the most invasive, requiring new radiator placements, tanks, pipework, and the installation of external units [60]. Shifting from resistive electric storage heaters to heat pumps, while less disruptive, may still require radiator repositioning to accommodate hydronic heating systems, which are common in the UK and EU but less so in Australia. For those moving from oil or bottled gas systems, alterations are usually minimal, often limited to increasing radiator size. However, recent technological advancements, such as higher-temperature heat pumps, improved insulation, and booster fans, can reduce or eliminate the need for larger radiators [61,62].
Many tenants feel unprepared for installation disruptions due to poor communication from installers or housing authorities. Information about heat pump functionality is often provided, but details about installation challenges—such as loss of storage space—are frequently omitted. Bulky heat pump units may occupy airing cupboards, reducing available space [63]. Clear communication and advance notice are essential to addressing tenant concerns and easing the transition [64].
3.4. Challenges Faced by Users with Heat Pumps in Social Housing
This section explores these challenges, categorising them into technical, financial, and behavioural/social domains. By understanding the barriers that impede adoption, this analysis aims to provide insights for stakeholders to address these issues effectively. Enhancing the deployment and user experience of heat pumps is critical to fostering their acceptance, ensuring equitable access to energy-efficient technologies, and realising their environmental and economic benefits within the social housing sector.
3.4.1. Technical Challenges
Technical challenges significantly influence heat pump user satisfaction, particularly in social housing. Common issues include inadequate heating or cooling performance, frequent malfunctions, and noise disturbances, often resulting from improper installation, incorrect system sizing, or poor maintenance.
A key problem is the failure of heat pumps to maintain consistent indoor temperatures. Undersized systems struggle to meet heating or cooling demands, leading to discomfort and higher energy consumption due to prolonged operation. Conversely, oversized systems cycle on and off too frequently, causing energy wastage, increased wear on components, and ineffective dehumidification. Ensuring the correct system size requires accurate load calculations that consider building size, insulation, window placement, occupancy patterns, and local climate. In extreme climates, supplementary heating or cooling may be necessary to meet peak demand efficiently. Poor climatic assessment can result in an inefficient system that either underperforms or consumes excessive energy [57,60].
Frequent breakdowns disrupt heating and cooling, causing significant inconvenience for social housing tenants. A common issue is refrigerant leaks, which reduce heat transfer efficiency and can lead to complete system failure. Compressor failures, often due to electrical issues, overuse, or inadequate maintenance, can shut down the entire system, necessitating expensive repairs [47].
Sensor and thermostat malfunctions also impact reliability. If miscalibrated, these components may cause erratic cycling or failure to maintain the desired temperature. Additionally, clogged air filters and frozen coils obstruct airflow, reducing efficiency and potentially overheating or freezing the system. These disruptions not only affect comfort but also drive up operational costs, undermining the perceived benefits of heat pumps. Regular professional maintenance is crucial to minimising these risks and ensuring reliable performance [65].
Excessive noise from air-source heat pumps, particularly outdoor units, can negatively impact user satisfaction. Vibrations transmitted through building structures may further disrupt the living environment, especially in social housing settings. Even when heat pumps provide energy efficiency benefits, noise disturbances can lead to dissatisfaction and reluctance to adopt the technology. Proper installation, soundproofing measures, and selecting quieter models can help mitigate these concerns [60].
Disruptions during installation also affect user acceptance. The extent of disruption depends on the existing heating system. Replacing open fires with heat pumps requires significant modifications, such as new radiator placements and external unit installation. Converting from electric storage heaters or oil systems is less invasive but may still require adjustments. Advanced heat pump technologies, such as high-temperature models and booster fans, can reduce the need for radiator replacements.
Tenants often feel unprepared for these disruptions due to inadequate communication from installers or housing authorities. Information on heat pump functionality is provided, but details about installation challenges, such as the loss of storage space, are frequently omitted. For example, bulky heat pump units may occupy airing cupboards, limiting household storage. Clear communication and advance notice are essential for addressing these concerns and improving acceptance.
Addressing technical issues through proper design, installation, and maintenance is crucial to improving heat pump performance and user satisfaction. Ensuring reliable heating and cooling, minimising system disruptions, and maintaining a comfortable indoor environment will foster positive user experiences and encourage broader adoption in social housing.
3.4.2. Financial Challenges to the Adoption of Heat Pump Technology
The high upfront costs of purchasing and installing heat pumps pose a significant financial barrier, particularly for landlords in social housing. Depending on the type and capacity, heat pump systems can cost AUD several thousand to over ten thousand. In social housing, where tenants do not own the property they live in, the split incentive problem presents a major obstacle. This issue arises because the costs and benefits of energy efficiency investments are misaligned. Landlords bear the financial burden of purchasing and installing heat pumps, including necessary retrofitting, yet they do not directly benefit from lower energy bills. Instead, tenants, who pay their own utility bills, enjoy the savings from increased energy efficiency, creating little incentive for landlords to invest in such upgrades [11,66].
Unlike simpler heating systems, integrating heat pumps into existing buildings often requires extensive modifications. Many social housing units were not designed to accommodate modern heat pump technology, necessitating costly upgrades to insulation, ductwork, or structural elements. These retrofitting requirements can significantly increase the overall expense, sometimes doubling the initial investment [11].
Beyond installation costs, ongoing maintenance and repair expenses further deter landlords from adopting heat pumps. Routine maintenance, such as filter cleaning and system checks, ensures efficiency but adds to long-term costs. Over time, components may wear out, requiring replacements or adjustments. Unexpected system breakdowns can lead to high repair costs, which may be difficult for both landlords and tenants to afford. The accumulation of these expenses makes heat pumps a less attractive option for property owners managing multiple housing units [11].
In social housing, the decision to adopt heat pumps depends entirely on the willingness and financial capacity of landlords or housing authorities. If they are unwilling or unable to make such investments, tenants are left with no control over their heating systems. This forces them to rely on less efficient and more costly alternatives, perpetuating energy inefficiency and higher living expenses. Although heat pumps can significantly lower heating and cooling costs, tenants cannot independently decide to install them without the landlord’s approval [66].
For tenants, the primary financial barrier associated with heat pumps is electricity costs and fluctuating energy prices. While heat pumps are more energy-efficient than traditional heating systems, they still rely on electricity. For low-income tenants, higher electricity bills—especially during colder months—can strain already tight budgets, making it difficult to cover other essential expenses [48,67].
Energy price volatility further complicates this issue. Electricity costs can fluctuate due to supply and demand shifts, geopolitical events, or regulatory changes. For tenants, this unpredictability makes budgeting for heating costs challenging. Rising energy prices may force them to choose between maintaining a comfortable indoor temperature and managing overall financial stability [57,68].
While heat pumps offer long-term savings and improved energy efficiency, financial barriers remain significant for both landlords and tenants in social housing. The split incentive problem discourages landlords from investing in heat pump installations, while tenants face potential increases in electricity bills and uncertainty due to fluctuating energy prices. Without targeted financial support or policy incentives, widespread adoption of heat pumps in social housing will remain challenging.
3.4.3. Behavioural and Social Challenges to the Adoption of Heat Pump Technology
Heat pump technology cannot deliver the desired outcomes without being carefully integrated into the lifestyles and practices of users. To be effective, users must be informed and supported to alter their expectations and practices of energy usage. Adopting heat pump technology often requires users to modify their existing heating habits, particularly due to the difference in heat-up times compared with traditional heating systems. Unlike conventional boilers or electric heaters that can quickly reach desired temperatures, heat pumps generally provide a more gradual increase in temperature. This slower heat-up time necessitates a shift in user behaviours. For example, users might need to set their heat pumps to start warming their homes earlier in the day to achieve the desired comfort levels by the time they typically wake up or return home. Additionally, maintaining a consistent indoor temperature might be more efficient with heat pumps, encouraging users to adopt a steadier, lower heat setting rather than frequently turning the system on and off. This change in heating patterns can initially be challenging but is crucial for maximising the efficiency and comfort provided by heat pump systems [18].
Optimising the settings of a heat pump is essential for harnessing its full potential for energy savings and comfort, yet it can present a significant challenge. Users need to familiarise themselves with the various modes and settings of their heat pumps, such as understanding how to use programmable thermostats, adjusting fan speeds, and selecting appropriate temperature settings for different times of the day. For instance, setting a lower temperature at night and during periods when the home is unoccupied can significantly enhance energy efficiency [60].
Tenants could experience a sense of disempowerment stemming from lack of guidance on adjusting household practices. A large proportion of users initially exhibit aversion towards the newly implemented heat pumps, yet reluctantly navigate the inevitable repercussions of its presence in their changed household practices, such as keeping windows open throughout the day. They may experience feelings of alienation due to lack of information and guidance. Feelings of alienation vary in intensity based on factors such as age, gender, prior technological experience, and single occupancy. Particularly, elderly women living alone are the most profoundly affected group, perceiving themselves as technologically uninformed [56,69].
Social norms and cultural values can influence how willing residents of social housing are to adopt heat pumps. If a technology is perceived as threatening to established ways of life or social structures, users may resist it. If users do not recognise a clear benefit or necessity for the new technology, they may be reluctant to adopt it. This perception often arises when users believe their current methods are sufficient or when the advantages of the new technology are not effectively communicated. Without a compelling reason to change, users may see the adoption of heat pumps as unnecessary, leading to resistance [44,48].
Inertia and comfort with the status quo can also contribute to resistance. People often prefer a routine and familiarity, and the effort required to change long-standing habits can be a significant barrier to adopting new technologies. The psychological comfort of sticking with what is known and reliable can outweigh the potential benefits of heat pumps, especially if the adoption process is perceived as difficult or disruptive. This resistance to change is often reinforced by a fear of the unknown and the potential risks associated with new technology. As a result, even when a new technology offers clear advantages, overcoming the inertia of the status quo can be challenging for new users [44].
Users’ trust in housing authorities or landlords plays a crucial role. If tenants have confidence in these entities and believe that their decisions are in their best interests, they are more likely to accept new technologies like heat pumps. Conversely, a lack of trust and apathy can lead to scepticism and resistance. Users’ hesitancy towards initiatives originates from a perception that the deals may seem ‘too good to be true’. Tenants are wary of receiving apparent benefits without a clear understanding, fearing that these might result in higher rent or increased utility bills. The dissemination of rumours, myths, and misinformation from unidentified and non-specific sources exert a reasonable impact on the implementation of heat pump technology [70].
Lack of reliable information can compel users to seek the advice of those who they already trust and rely upon to help them navigate the controls for their heat pump system [70]. In the context of older individuals, a significant reliance on friends and family for advice and assistance can be observed. Conversely, those who are more socially isolated, lacking connections within their social networks, often find themselves uninformed about the functioning of their heating systems [61]. This highlights the critical need for effective communication strategies to dispel misinformation and build trust among users [51].
Awareness and education play a crucial role in shaping cultural attitudes toward new technologies like heat pumps. In many social housing communities, limited knowledge about heat pumps can lead to misunderstandings and unfounded fears, such as concerns about increased utility bills or complex maintenance requirements. These misconceptions can create resistance among tenants, who may be hesitant to embrace a technology they do not fully understand. To counteract this, effective education and communication strategies are essential. By providing clear, accessible information about how heat pumps work and information about their benefits and any potential costs, housing authorities can help demystify the technology. This transparency can build trust and encourage acceptance, particularly if educational efforts are tailored to address specific concerns within the community [48,71].
The inconsistency in the provision of information is a critical concern, significantly impacting users’ capacity to comprehend and manage their heat pump systems [67]. There is a discernible variability in the stages at which users are furnished with information about the heat pump system [71]. Furthermore, there exists a significant disparity in the written information offered by various landlords. Certain housing associations demonstrate a tendency to furnish more comprehensive written details than others when acquainting tenants with heat pump technology [50].
There is an apparent lack of information for users on how to operate the heat pump. Users receive inadequate or insufficient information regarding the operation of their systems [50,59]. Social housing users express the need for more comprehensive, specific information to consult during regular usage. Users highlight the necessity for written information that is easily comprehensible, elucidating the controls and symbols present in their respective control devices [50].
The conspicuous absence of resident engagement in various facets of community governance is a key deterrent in heat pump adoption. Some individuals exhibit resistance to proposed measures due to a broader reluctance to participate in community matters [42,70]. Ensuring that a heat pump fulfills their specific energy service needs proves to be a challenging endeavour for some, as it is hard for them to engage in a lengthy process of selecting a suitable product and then work out how to operate the equipment. It is imperative for landlords to adopt a more proactive role in fostering resident engagement. Mere dissemination of information through written communication, such as postal correspondence, is deemed inadequate. There is a need for landlords to implement more robust and interactive strategies to cultivate a heightened level of involvement and empowerment among residents in community affairs [70,71].
Perceived fairness and equity are also critical factors influencing the acceptance of heat pumps in social housing. Residents may worry about the fairness of how heat pumps are implemented, particularly if they believe that some tenants will bear a greater share of the costs or if the benefits are not evenly distributed. For example, if certain households experience more significant energy savings than others, or if some residents face higher rent due to the installation of heat pumps, resentment and resistance can arise. Ensuring that the implementation process is transparent, inclusive, and equitable can help mitigate these concerns. By involving residents in decision-making and ensuring that costs and benefits are fairly distributed, landlords can foster a sense of ownership and support for the transition to heat pump technology [72].
The absence of ‘visible success’ and a failure to clearly anchor a project in local concerns, issues, and knowledge could act as a potential impediment to sustained adoption [18]. The heat pump facilitators acknowledged that the unfamiliar nature of the technology could serve as a barrier to adoption, prompting initiatives to enhance its visibility. However, they noted that comprehending heat pumps necessitated contextualisation. Managers and surveyors agreed that the installation of heat pump technology posed greater challenges compared with conventional heating devices. They recommended enhancing observability, contending that interpreting the functioning of heat pumps was indispensable for fostering adoption and realising positive impact [18].
Financial and technical challenges are the most frequently reported, appearing in nearly all studies, followed by social and behavioural challenges, which also feature prominently. These findings highlight the multifaceted nature of the barriers to heat pump adoption in social housing.
4. Discussion
User experiences, behaviours, and satisfaction play a critical role in integrating heat pump technology in social housing. Heat pumps enhance thermal comfort and improve IAQ by reducing moisture and particulates, but proper ventilation and user practices are essential. While users expect cost savings, misunderstandings about system operation or high electricity costs may lead to dissatisfaction.
Efficient operation relies on consistent user behaviours, such as maintaining steady temperatures and understanding controls. Challenges include reluctance to adjust settings due to perceived complexity and reliance on landlords or neighbours for assistance. Miscommunication and lack of education exacerbate these issues, hindering satisfaction and adoption.
Disruptive installation processes and inequitable cost distribution foster resistance. Mistrust, inertia, and misconceptions about the technology also impede acceptance. Tailored outreach, effective communication to dispel myths, user education, and financial incentives are critical to enhancing satisfaction and adoption. User-centric design and equitable implementation strategies can further support successful integration.
To enhance the uptake of heat pumps, particularly in social housing, a combination of policy, financial, educational, and technical interventions can be employed. Figure 5 provides a breakdown of challenges faced in the implementation of heat pumps.
International case studies provide valuable insights into the integration of heat pump technology in social housing, offering lessons that can be adapted to the Australian context. Table 3 below presents key lessons and their potential applications.
5. Conclusions
Heat pumps in social housing offer substantial economic and environmental advantages, including reductions in operational costs and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as improvements in IAQ and thermal comfort. These benefits are particularly important for vulnerable populations, such as the elderly and individuals with chronic health conditions, as they contribute to enhanced living conditions. Despite these advantages, several challenges hinder the widespread adoption of heat pumps, notably financial barriers like high initial costs, ongoing maintenance expenses, and the split incentive problem, where landlords incur costs but tenants receive the benefits. Additionally, technical inefficiencies, such as improper system sizing and insufficient user understanding, further impede the effectiveness of heat pump systems. Furthermore, issues such as mistrust, resistance to change, and a lack of education regarding the benefits and operation of heat pumps exacerbate these challenges, resulting in user dissatisfaction and slow adoption rates.
To address these barriers, landlords can take proactive measures to facilitate the successful adoption of heat pump technology in social housing. A key strategy is investing in tenant education to enhance understanding of the benefits and operational aspects of heat pumps. This can be achieved through the organisation of workshops or the distribution of accessible informational materials. Clear communication is vital to ensure that tenants are well informed about the costs, installation procedures, and anticipated energy savings. Financial incentives, such as rent reductions or participation in energy-saving programs, could also be offered to alleviate the burden of upfront investment. Furthermore, collaboration with HVAC professionals and energy consultants is essential to ensure that heat pumps are appropriately sized for the building’s needs and that installation and maintenance are conducted efficiently.
Tenants also play an essential role in maximising the effectiveness of heat pump systems. Active engagement in discussions with landlords regarding system installation, as well as the expression of preferences, can ensure that the technology meets their specific needs. Post-installation, tenants can optimise the performance of heat pumps by adhering to energy-efficient usage patterns, such as maintaining consistent thermostat settings or using timers to minimise energy waste. Participation in energy-saving initiatives offered by landlords or utility providers can further reduce energy consumption, thereby enhancing tenant satisfaction with the technology.
International case studies illustrate that successful heat pump adoption hinges on tenant education, financial incentives, simplified installation processes, and the integration of renewable energy. Tailored outreach campaigns to dispel myths, pilot projects showcasing tangible benefits, and equitable implementation strategies have been identified as crucial for building trust and promoting acceptance. For Australia, targeted grants, rebates, and low-interest loans could alleviate financial barriers, while streamlined retrofitting processes and equitable cost-sharing mechanisms between landlords and tenants would foster greater uptake. The integration of heat pumps with renewable energy systems, such as solar photovoltaic (PV) panels, coupled with robust tenant engagement through education and technical support, could further enhance the technology’s potential to deliver energy efficiency and improve tenant well-being.
This study provides valuable insights for policy-makers, housing authorities, and stakeholders within the social housing sector regarding the effective integration of heat pump technology. By identifying and addressing key barriers, such as financial constraints, technical inefficiencies, and behavioural resistance, this study outlines strategies to mitigate these challenges through incentives, education, and support systems. The findings highlight the importance of tenant engagement, user-centred design, and equitable implementation practices to ensure that heat pumps achieve their full economic, environmental, and social potential. These strategies are particularly relevant for retrofitting aging social housing stock, enhancing energy efficiency, and contributing to both national and global decarbonisation goals.
This study contributes to reducing energy poverty by demonstrating how heat pumps can lower utility costs for low-income households while improving thermal comfort and indoor air quality. It highlights the potential health benefits for vulnerable populations, such as the elderly and individuals with chronic conditions, by ensuring stable and efficient heating and cooling. Moreover, the emphasis on equitable cost-sharing and community engagement fosters social inclusivity and trust, addressing resistance and promoting wider acceptance of sustainable technologies. By advancing the adoption of heat pumps in social housing, this research supports broader societal goals of sustainability, energy equity, and climate resilience.
5.1. Limitation of the Study
Most of the studies identified in the search are from European countries. There are a lack of data from other regions. This is a limitation of this research.
5.2. Areas for Future Research
To extend the existing research on heat pump adoption in social housing, future research could focus on several advanced areas that build on the current findings.
Further research in the area of long-term monitoring of user behaviour can play a critical role in optimising heat pump performance and can help in ensuring long-term user satisfaction. It allows for a deeper understanding of how users interact with heating and cooling systems over time. Smart technologies, such as IoT sensors and machine learning algorithms, can track various factors like temperature preferences, usage patterns, and energy consumption. By continuously collecting and analysing data, these systems can adapt the heat pump’s operation to meet the specific needs of the user, leading to improved efficiency, reduced energy consumption, and enhanced comfort. Over time, these insights can also enable predictive maintenance, identifying potential issues before they occur and ensuring that the system operates at peak performance.
Further research could also be conducted in the area of the long-term impact of community-driven initiatives on energy consumption and cost savings, specifically exploring how participatory approaches influence user behaviour, system performance, and overall satisfaction with heat pumps in the context of social housing. Additionally, research could investigate the scalability of these community-based models in different geographical regions, climates, and socio-economic contexts to determine the factors that make them most effective.
Another potential area of study is the development of tailored financing models and incentives that could make the initial investment in heat pumps more accessible to low-income communities. By expanding knowledge in these areas, future efforts could refine strategies for increasing adoption and optimising the integration of heat pumps in social housing developments.
All authors contributed equally to the preparation of this manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
ACT—Australian Capital Territory; GSHP—ground-Source heat pump; ASHP—air-source heat pumps; DHS—district heating system; PV panels—photovoltaic panels; AWHPs—air-to-water heat pump; WWHPs—water-to-water heat pumps, COPs—coefficients of performance; SCOP—seasonal coefficient of performance; kWh—kilowatt hours; MJ—megajoules; HRV—heat recovery ventilation; ERV—energy recovery ventilation; IAQ—indoor air quality.
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Heat pump efficiencies across various climate types.
| Authors | Location of Study | Findings |
|---|---|---|
| Mediterranean Climate: | ||
| Vallati et al., 2023 [ | Rome, Italy (AWHP + PV System): | Seasonal COP (SCOP): 2.5 to 3.58 depending on system capacity. A 73% reduction in total energy consumption using active and passive strategies. |
| Jahanbin et al., 2023 [ | Catania, Italy (Centralised AWHP + PV): | Standard COP: 3.10. |
| Pintanel et al., 2022 [ | Zaragoza, Spain (Solar-Assisted Heat Pump): | Seasonal COP: 4.36. |
| Hernandez-Cruz et al., 2023 [ | Basque Country, Spain (Water-to-Water Heat Pump): | COP: 4.4. |
| Temperate Climate: | ||
| Vallati et al., 2022 [ | Rome, Italy (AWHP): | System efficiency: 300% under moderate temperatures. |
| Sojkova et al., 2019 [ | Milevsko, Czech Republic (AWHP): | SCOP: 3.0–3.5 based on outdoor temperature and conditions. |
| Guardigli et al., 2018 [ | Bologna, Italy (AWHP): | SCOP: 3.0–3.5. |
| Gupta et al., 2018 [ | UK (Exhaust Air Heat Pumps): | COP: 1.4, significantly lower than the designed COP of 2.6. |
| Humid Subtropical Climate: | ||
| Monteiro et al., 2017 [ | Milan, Italy (Geothermal Systems): | COP: 2.4 to 4.82 (optimised). |
| Temperate Maritime Climate: | ||
| van der Bent et al., 2023 [ | Netherlands (ASHP): | Winter COP: 2.0–3.0 (reduced due to lower ambient heat). |
| Gupta et al., 2022 [ | UK (ASHP + PV + Home Battery Storage): | Standard operating COP: 2.5–3.2. |
| Humid Oceanic Climate: | ||
| Hernandez-Cruz et al., 2023 [ | Basque Country, Spain (Water-to-Water Heat Pump): | System efficiency: 75.7%. |
| Sub-Arctic Climate: | ||
| Vesterberg et al., 2017 [ | Umeå, Sweden (Heat Pumps): | Annual district heating demand reduced by 25–26%. |
| Continental Climate: | ||
| Khadra et al., 2020 [ | Sweden (Exhaust Air Heat Pumps): | Seasonal COP: 4.36. |
| Warm Temperate Subtropical Climate: | ||
| Barrella et al., 2020 [ | Madrid, Spain (ASHP for Space Heating): | Heating seasonal performance factor (HSPF): 2.585. |
| Moderate Oceanic Climate: | ||
| Donaldson and Lord 2018 [ | Glasgow, Scotland (GSHP): | COP: 3.0–4.0. |
Source—selected studies on heat pump efficiencies from the 69 papers.
Environmental performance of heat pumps.
| Study | Type of Heat Pump | Location of Study | Type of Climate | Emission Reduction |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gupta et al., 2022 [ | 35 kW EAHP, covering 75% of the building’s heat demand. | Milan, Italy | Humid subtropical climate | |
| Monteiro et al., 2017 [ | 40 kW EAHP, covering 64% of the building’s heat demand. | UK | Maritime climate | A combination of ASHP adoption and insulation upgrades could achieve emissions reductions of 42% under the current grant scheme and |
| Pintanel et al., 2022 [ | Water-to-water heat pump | Zaragoza, Spain | Mediterranean climate | The integrated system achieved 24.1 tons/year greenhouse gas reductions compared with a conventional natural gas boiler system. This corresponds to a 63% reduction in global warming potential (GWP). |
| Khadra et al., 2020 [ | Ground-source heat pump (GSHP) | Sweden | Continental climate | Emissions decreased by up to 75% when shifting to the HP shift mode in excess heat-dominated DH networks. |
| Agbonaye et al., 2020 [ | Air-source heat pumps (ASHPs) | Ireland | Temperate oceanic climate | There was a 57% reduction when paired with renewable electricity and heat batteries and a 53% reduction when paired with buffer tanks. |
| Sojkova et al., 2019 [ | Air-to-water heat pumps (AWHPs) | Milevsko, South Bohemian Region | Temperate | GHG emissions were reduced by 60% compared with natural gas boilers. AWHPs also outperformed district heating in terms of environmental impact, particularly when coupled with renewable energy. |
Source—selected studies on environmental performance of heat pump from the 69 papers.
Lessons learnt from case studies and their Australian adaptation.
| Type of Lesson | Case Study Insights | Australian Adaptation |
|---|---|---|
| Importance of Tenant Education and Engagement | The European experience shows that tenant education in countries like the UK and Sweden highlights the importance of clear communication about system benefits and operations. Well-informed tenants reported higher satisfaction and more efficient use of the heat pumps. | Develop region-specific educational materials, including videos, guides, and workshops, that explain heat pumps operation and benefits, tailored to Australia’s climatic and social housing conditions. |
| Financial Incentives and Support | In Germany and Norway, government subsidies, grants, and low-interest loans significantly lowered the financial barriers for landlords and tenant incentives. | The government should introduce targeted grants, rebates, or tax credits to offset installation costs for landlords. |
| Simplified Installation Processes | Scandinavian countries simplified the installation of heat pumps by using modular designs of building envelops and minimising tenant displacement during retrofitting. | Develop guidelines for modular, non-intrusive installations suitable for Australia’s older social housing stock. |
| Leveraging Renewable Energy Integration | Case studies from Spain and Belgium showed the success of integrating heat pumps with renewable energy sources like photovoltaic (PV) panels and district heating systems. | Promote the integration of heat pumps with rooftop solar PV in regions with high solar potential to reduce operating costs and emissions. |
| Maintenance and Long-term Support | Countries like Netherlands ensured heat pump success by offering subsidised maintenance plans and technical support for tenants. | Establish maintenance programs supported by government funding or housing authorities to ensure long-term efficiency. |
| Addressing Behavioural and Social Resistance | In Sweden, campaigns addressed misconceptions and reluctance by demonstrating tangible benefits through pilot projects. | Heat pump manufacturers should implement awareness campaigns showcasing successful heat pumps projects in Australia to dispel myths and demonstrate tangible benefits. |
Source—derived from selected studies on user satisfaction of heat pump technology.
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1 School of Property Construction and Project Management, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia; Healthy Environment and Lives (HEAL) National Research Network, Canberra, ACT 2617, Australia; Post Carbon Research Centre, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia