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Facial emotional expressions are one of the most complex emotional states in humans and one of the most difficult situations to be detected in everyday interactions [1]. Good facial emotion recognition predicts optimal interpersonal relationships, especially at the beginning of a relationship. In contrast, impaired facial emotion recognition can be associated with impaired social relationships and emotional dysregulation, which can lead to interpersonal conflicts and poor performance in social relationships. In this regard, White et al. [46] consider the ability to recognize facial emotions as a factor influencing social performance, academic attainment, and communication with peers. In addition, Connolly et al. [9] showed a significant relationship between facial emotion recognition and social cognition (recognizing the goals of others) and provided the appropriate conditions for efficient responses. Considering the importance of facial emotion recognition in everyday interactions, many studies have been conducted on people with psychological disorders. For example, impaired recognition of facial emotions in schizophrenia, ADHD, depression, and bipolar disorder has been confirmed [10]. Thus, the question arises as to whether parental psychiatric disorders such as bipolar disorder are associated with emotional dysregulation and emotional recognition of their offspring. In a genome study, Coleman et al. [8] showed that emotion recognition errors are considered an endophenotype for offspring of parents with bipolar disorder (BD), depression, schizophrenia, and autism. In other words, impaired facial emotion recognition as an endophenotype results from gene-environment interaction. In this regard, various environmental models that usually use the"top-down"approach have been proposed. One of these models emphasizes the role of invalidation environments [29, 37]. For example, some studies have shown that the parent(s) emotional dysregulation negatively affects the offspring's emotional development [8].
In his seminal theory, Moltz [33] also states that the illness-related behaviors of people with BD lead to negative psychological consequences for other family members. Besides Parker's [35] parental bonding hypothesis holds that parents with mood disorders predispose their offspring to a wide range of psychopathologies through inadequate care (lack of warmth and affection) and overprotection (limitation of autonomy). In other words, studies show that a parent/parents with bipolar and mood disorders contribute to their offspring's dysregulation and impaired facial emotion recognition through negative parenting and invalidation (Huntley [20, 21, 24, 25, 27, 34]). For example, Işık Ulusoy et...