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Abstract
Study Analysis Group 21 (SAG21) of NASA’s Exoplanet Exploration Program Analysis Group was organized to study the effect of stellar contamination on space-based transmission spectroscopy, a method for studying exoplanetary atmospheres by measuring the wavelength-dependent radius of a planet as it transits its star. Transmission spectroscopy relies on a precise understanding of the spectrum of the star being occulted. However, stars are not homogeneous, constant light sources but have temporally evolving photospheres and chromospheres with inhomogeneities like spots, faculae, plages, granules, and flares. This SAG brought together an interdisciplinary team of more than 100 scientists, with observers and theorists from the heliophysics, stellar astrophysics, planetary science, and exoplanetary atmosphere research communities, to study the current research needs that can be addressed in this context to make the most of transit studies from current NASA facilities like Hubble Space Telescope and JWST. The analysis produced 14 findings, which fall into three science themes encompassing (i) how the Sun is used as our best laboratory to calibrate our understanding of stellar heterogeneities (‘The Sun as the Stellar Benchmark’), (ii) how stars other than the Sun extend our knowledge of heterogeneities (‘Surface Heterogeneities of Other Stars’), and (iii) how to incorporate information gathered for the Sun and other stars into transit studies (‘Mapping Stellar Knowledge to Transit Studies’). In this invited review, we largely reproduce the final report of SAG21 as a contribution to the peer-reviewed literature.
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1 Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139 , USA
2 Space Telescope Science Institute , 3700 San Martin Drive, Baltimore, MD 21218 , USA
3 Leibniz-Institut für Sonnenphysik (KIS) , Schöneckstrasse 6, D-79104 Freiburg , Germany
4 European Southern Observatory (ESO) , Alonso de Córdova 3107, Vitacura, Santiago , Chile
5 Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan , 1085 South University Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 , USA
6 School of Physics, University of New South Wales , Sydney, NSW 2052 , Australia
7 Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern , Gesellschaftsstrasse 6, CH-3012 Bern , Switzerland
8 Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias , E-38200 La Laguna, Tenerife , Spain
9 Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung , Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 3, D-37077 Göttingen , Germany
10 Department of Physics, Imperial College London , Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2AZ , UK
11 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center , 8800 Greenbelt Road, Greenbelt, MD 20771 , USA
12 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology , 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 , USA
13 Steward Observatory, The University of Arizona , 933 North Cherry Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85721 , USA
14 School of Physical Sciences, The Open University , Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA , UK
15 INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania , Via S. Sofia 78, I-95123 Catania , Italy
16 Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences , Schmiedlstrasse 6, A-8042 Graz , Austria
17 School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leicester , University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH , UK
18 Department of Physics, University of Warwick , Coventry CV4 7AL , UK
19 National Solar Observatory , 3665 Discovery Drive, Boulder, CO 80303 , USA
20 Observatoire de Genève, Université de Genève , Chemin des Maillettes 51, CH-1290 Versoix , Switzerland
21 School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University , 525 E. University Dr., Tempe, AZ 85281 , USA
22 Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado Boulder , Boulder, CO 80303 , USA
23 Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP) , An der Sternwarte 16, D-14482 Potsdam , Germany
24 Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian , 60 Garden St, Cambridge, MA 02138 , USA
25 Universitäts-Sternwarte, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München , Scheinerstrasse 1, D-81679 München , Germany
26 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Dartmouth College , Hanover, NH 03755 , USA
27 National Solar Observatory , Boulder, CO 80303 , USA
28 Yale Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Yale University , 46 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, CT 06511 , USA
29 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University , Nashville, TN 37235 , USA
30 Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory , 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20723 , USA
31 Instituto de Investigación en Astronomia y Ciencias Planetarias, Universidad de Atacama , Copiapó, Atacama 1531772 , Chile
32 Centro de Rádio Astronomia e Astrofisica Mackenzie, Mackenzie Presbyterian University , Rua da Consolacao, 896, Sao Paulo , Brazil
33 Rosseland Centre for Solar Physics, University of Oslo , Postboks 1029 Blindern, 0315 Oslo , Norway
34 Carnegie Earth & Planets Laboratory , 5241 Broad Branch Road NW, Washington, DC 20015 , USA
35 Astronomy Department, University of Washington , Box 951580, Seattle, WA 98195 , USA
36 Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland , College Park, MD 20742 , USA
37 Department of Astronomy, Boston University , Boston, MA 02215 , USA
38 Astrobiology Research Unit, Université de Liège , 19C Allée du 6 Aout, B-4000 Liège , Belgium
39 Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago , 5640 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637 , USA
40 Gemini Observatory/NSF’s NOIRLab , 670 N. A’ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720 , USA
41 Institut de Ciències de l’Espai (ICE, CSIC), Campus UAB , C/Can Magrans s/n, E-08193 Bellaterra , Spain