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1. Introduction
Due to the environmental issues caused by fossil fuels and the growing need for reliable transportation solutions, the electric railways industry has seen significant growth in recent years. With increasing awareness of climate change and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, electric railways are seen as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly mode of transportation compared to diesel-powered trains. Advances in electric propulsion systems, battery technology, and regenerative braking have improved the performance and efficiency of electric trains, making them more attractive to operators. In order to increase the overall efficiency of the traction system, it is necessary to save the energy that is generated by regenerative braking, which plays a significant role in electric traction applications [1]. Regenerative braking is an evolving and efficient system for stopping the vehicle and saving a significant amount of energy. Their primary advantages include prolonged battery usage, operating the vehicle solely on battery power, recovering otherwise wasted energy, and increasing efficiency. This type of brakes are used in electric bicycle, scooters, hybrid or electric vehicles (EVs), light truck, and transport. The main purpose of this type of electric brake is to generate electricity at the time of stopping and store or reuse it in vehicles [2]. These are the fundamental components that make up regenerative brakes: the power electronic system, which includes a DC–DC converter and an inverter, the electric motor/generator, and the battery or super capacitor (SC) that stores the electricity. Regenerative braking helps improve the overall efficiency of electric trains and vehicles by reducing energy consumption and extending the range of the vehicle on a single charge. Various methods are discussed in the literature for saving energy of the regenerative braking such as: injection of the energy to the distribution grid [3], used for acceleration of other trains [4] and saving the energy in storage devices like SCs for upcoming energy lacking conditions [5].
A stage in the middle is required in order to handle the power that is transferred between the storage devices and the traction motor. DC–DC converters effectively transfer power between various voltage levels inside the vehicle by stepping the voltage up or down as necessary [6]. Based on whether galvanic isolation is offered or not, DC–DC converters are mainly categorized into two types: isolated and nonisolated [7]. Unlike isolated converters, which incorporate transformers to provide isolation, nonisolated converters are without transformers and are commonly used in various applications which do not require isolation or can be achieved using other means. According to this perspective, nonisolated DC–DC power converters are used for EVs over their bulkier and more expensive isolated equivalents [8]. The most common configurations in the nonisolated category are buck, boost, buck–boost, CUK, SEPIC, ZETA, positive output super-lift Luo, and ultra-lift Luo [9–15]. Interleaved converters with inverters, bidirectional converters, AC–DC hybrid converters, regenerative converters, and other topologies are some of the options that may be utilized between the motor and the battery. Bidirectional DC–DC converters (BDCs) are the topology that is utilized the most frequently in concept. The BDCs are the most important components of a regenerative braking system. The bidirectional configurations reduce the size of the system, improve its efficiency and performance, and eliminate the need to use two separate converters for the forward and reverse power flow. This is accomplished by interfacing between the power sources and the energy storage elements. The general structure of the BDCs is depicted in Figure 1 [16]. Depending on the location of the energy storage system, the converter acts as a buck or boost type and the respective control system is used to regulate the voltage or current of the system.
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
Due to its specific features, a bidirectional converter is applicable in systems where the current is required to be supplied in both directions based on the operating mode. A sample diagram of these applications in the powertrain of EVs is shown in Figure 2 [17].
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
BDCs are mainly categorized by two groups: Isolated and nonisolated [18]. There is a wide variety of BDC topologies that are proposed in papers for a variety of purposes, including EVs [19, 20], electric ships [21], uninterrupted power supplies [22], photovoltaic-battery systems [23], and regenerative applications [24]. The BDCs operate at higher switching frequencies to increase the power density capacity. Devices quickly turn on and off, producing HF noise that damages other grid-connected equipment and generates electromagnetic interference (EMI) in the grid. Therefore, while designing BDCs, reliable EMI mitigation and control techniques must be adopted. According to the approach suggested in [4], these high-power converters facilitate the transfer of power from the SCs to the motor during acceleration, and from the motor to the SCs during braking [25].
Nonisolated-type topologies use an inductor to transfer the energy toward the load, and the controller architecture is quite simple. Under boost operation, the inductor has the ability to store magnetic energy when the switch is turned on, and then release that energy when the switch is turned off. The advantages of nonisolated technique include the fact that it employs a smaller number of switches and passive components, has lower prices, and has a smaller footprint than isolated methodology [26]. The nonisolated configurations, however, do not adhere to the safety requirements. Furthermore, compared to isolated configurations, nonisolated topologies have reduced voltage magnitude, range of conversion, and control flexibility [27–33].
Nonisolated BDCs are utilized in higher-power applications as well as medium-power applications. Flexibility, simplicity, and high efficiency are the defining characteristics of these systems. Battery EVs, hybrid EVs, and ultralight EVs are few examples of vehicles that frequently make use of these components [34]. Nonisolated converters include conventional buck/boost [35, 36], SEPIC [37], coupled-inductor [38], multilevel [39], and interleaved converters [40–44].
The conventional nonisolated buck/boost BDCs are famous for their simple structure and affordability. The parasitic parameters of the circuit and the need for a very high duty ratio, on the other hand, limit the highest voltage gain that can be achieved. Additionally, the converter experiences high-voltage stress [45]. These converters also encounter a common issue of high ripple current on the low-voltage side. This affects the performance of BDC applications involving ESS, as the large ripple current negatively impacts battery performance and lifespan [46].
BDCs employ a variety of conversion techniques, such as multilevel techniques [45, 47], cascaded models [48, 49], voltage multipliers [50], switched inductors, switched capacitors [51, 52], and coupled inductors [49, 53, 54]. The multilevel technique improves the voltage conversion ratio and reduces voltage stresses on power switches. However, this model increases the number of switches and the control complexity. Cascaded structures reduce the high-voltage stresses on power switches but result in a lower power density and increased converter cost. Similarly, a switch inductor can lead to low switch stress and high gain, but the difference between the low-voltage side and high-voltage side can lead to EMI problems [51].
Coupled-inductor topologies can boost the gain, but leakage inductance can cause switches to experience high-voltage spikes, which might need extra snubber circuitry [53]. One common issue in the abovementioned BDCs is the presence of a significant ripple current on the low-voltage side. This ripple current is a problem for battery energy storage systems (BESSs), which are sensitive to such fluctuations. Excessive ripple currents can shorten the lifespan of the BESS [55, 56]. The following is a list of the several methods that may be utilized in converters in order to reduce the amount of current ripples:
• One approach is to increase the inductance of the inductors. This reduces the current ripple, but it can slow down the dynamic response, cost, and size of the converter due to the larger inductor size [57].
• Using a large capacitor can solve the ripple issues, but it increases the size and cost of the converter.
• Increasing the switching frequency can reduce ripple current and allow for smaller inductors. But the increase in switching frequency is limited by the gate drive circuit, switching losses, and the need to meet electromagnetic compliance standards.
• Using DCM in converters might result in a reduction in the size of the inductor. On the other hand, the larger inductor current in DCM mode causes a rise in switch stress, which ultimately results in an increase in power loss.
• The interleaving technique can reduce the inductor ripple [58]. This approach, despite its efficiency, results in an increase in the number of switches and inductors, which in turn makes control more difficult and drives up the cost of the converter.
• Utilizing cascaded converters with phase shifts can also decrease inductor ripples [56]. However, this approach may raise the complexity and cost due to an increase in the component count.
The nonisolated buck–boost mode of operation employs only two switches in BDCs to accomplish the DC–DC conversion step, but a five-switch nonisolated buck–boost mode BDC architecture is presented in [59]. The coupled-inductor BDC [60, 61] presents a challenge with leakage inductance and power constraints, as the magnetic core leads to increased voltage stress on switching devices. The converter in [62] is a high-gain BDC with a half bridge structure that has some disadvantages during variable voltage application: The saturation and imbalance of the magnetizing current are not prevented completely. The interleaved switched-capacitor BDC in [63] has a wide range for voltage gain. The proposed converter is applicable in conditions where one side is a battery and the other side is connected to a constant DC link. It contains 11 circuit components including five semiconductor switches, four capacitors, and two inductors which make it more complicated. Hence, it is desirable to use a high-efficiency nonisolated BDC with the capacity to handle high-power applications and a minimal number of components for the purpose of conserving energy from regenerative braking, which employs a switching mechanism. The disadvantages of typical nonisolated BDCs, which, in addition to the complexity of control, contribute to the increased weight and size of the converter, hence increasing its cost, are addressed by all of the converters that have been discussed above. These converters utilize a significant number of components to overcome these drawbacks. As a result, this makes the converter unsuitable for high-power applications, such as electric trains.
A novel on-board bidirectional EV battery charger (EVBC) was proposed in [64]. It is constituted by a grid-side converter capable of operating with five voltage levels and by a battery-side converter capable of operating with three voltage levels. The proposed EVBC operates with grid-side current controlled to improve power factor, and to preserve the battery lifetime, the EVBC operates with battery-side controlled current or voltage. In general, the volume and weight of the filter decrease as the number of levels increases in multilevel converters. Nevertheless, this necessitates an increased number of switches and the gate driver circuit, which not only increases switching losses but also increases the cost of the converter. The objective of this research is to present a nonisolated BDC for high-power applications such as electric trains. This converter will have a straightforward structure and control topology, and it will, to the greatest extent feasible, avoid exhibiting the problem that is associated with the converters that have been stated.
The proposed nonisolated BDC has two inductors, two capacitors, and four semiconductor switches embedded inside it. In each mode, two switches and other’s antiparallel diodes are used. The series capacitors that are connected on the high-voltage side of the circuit improve the voltage gains for both the step-up and step-down adjustments. In addition to this, the inductor on the input side ensures that the input current keeps flowing continuously. This topology is a strong contender for traction applications because it has a number of benefits, including little voltage stress on the power switches and high efficiency values of the converter. Due to the fact that the proposed converter does not include electrical isolation, it is not suitable for use in applications such as the charging of EVs or any other application that necessitates the presence of electrical isolation for the purpose of ensuring safety.
The paper is organized into the following sections: The operational principles of the proposed converter in continuous conduction mode (CCM) are comprehensively examined in Section 2 for both step-up and step-down configurations. In Section 3, a control mechanism that is suggested for an effective traction system is described. Experimentation and simulation verification, as well as discussion, are included in Section 4. Finally, the paper is concluded in Section 5.
2. Operating Principle of the Proposed Converter
The proposed BDC is shown in Figure 3. This converter consists of four switch diodes,
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
Section 3 provides a detailed explanation of the proposed control method. However, in general, the switching logic is as follows: When it is necessary to store regenerative braking energy in the SCs, the converter operates in buck mode, and as a result, no command is sent to the
The steady-state analysis of the proposed converter in step-up and step-down modes is discussed. In the case of CCM, the following assumptions are taken into consideration in order to simplify the analysis of the proposed converter:
• Capacitors are considered large enough, and therefore their voltages are constant.
• The switches in the converter are considered ideal.
2.1. Step-up Mode of the Proposed Converter
The proposed converter, in step-up mode, has two submodes. The typical waveform of the proposed converter in step-up mode is shown in Figure 4. In this mode, the power semiconductors
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
2.1.1. Mode 1[
During this mode,
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
The input voltage of the converter is denoted by
2.1.2. Mode 2 [
During this mode,
The voltages
By simplifying (5) and (6), the following equations can be derived:
Considering that the output voltage of the proposed converter in boost mode is equal to the sum of the voltages of capacitors
Since the mean values of the capacitors
The current ripple of the inductors
The minimal value of the inductor may be determined as follows:
In step-up mode, the minimum inductance value at which the proposed converter can operate in CCM with a specified load and switching frequency and also with a specified duty cycle can be obtained using equations (16) and (17) for
2.2. Step-down Mode of the Proposed Converter
The proposed converter in step-down mode also has two submodes. The typical waveform of the proposed converter in step-down mode is shown in Figure 6. In this mode, the
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
2.2.1. Mode 1 [
During this mode,
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
2.2.2. Mode 2 [
During this time,
According to the aforementioned equations, the voltages across both inductors are negative; hence, the current flowing through the inductors decreases linearly in this mode. Since the mean values of the inductors
By simplifying (23) and (24), the following equations can be derived:
By substituting (24) into (25), the equation for the voltage gain of the proposed converter in step-down mode can be found as follows:
The current of capacitors
Since the mean values of the capacitors
The current ripple of the inductors
The minimal value of the inductors may be determined as follows:
In step-down mode, the minimum inductance value at which the proposed converter can operate in CCM with a specified load and switching frequency and also with a specified duty cycle can be obtained using equations (33) and (34) for
The obtained values of inductors
3. Suggested Control Scheme
According to Figure 8, the underground catenary system is operated using AC power supply with a voltage range of 132 to 20 kV. This energy is transmitted through an AC/DC converter to the DC link. The DC link provides power to motors by a bidirectional DC/AC converter. The proposed DC/DC converter is parallel to the system and stores the regenerative braking energy in SCs and when accelerated, the saved energy is transferred to the DC link.
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
A new algorithm is proposed to control the BDC.
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
A new algorithm is proposed to control the BDC.
4. Simulation and Experimental Results
4.1. Simulation
In this section, the proposed converter has been simulated using MATLAB/Simulink software. Moreover, the simulation has utilized data from Table 1 dataset in order to validate the theoretical and mathematical relations that were mentioned in the second section. This was implemented in order to compare the findings of the simulation with the results of the experimental prototype. Initially, the simulation was performed for the boost mode, followed by the analysis of the results. Finally, the simulation was also carried out for the buck mode. It is worth mentioning that, similar to the experimental prototype, a duty cycle of 50% and a switching frequency of 25 kHz have been considered in the simulation.
Table 1
The experimental parameters of the proposed converter.
Specification | Value |
100 W, 100 W | |
40 V | |
120 V | |
Switching frequency | 25 KHz |
200 μH | |
220 μF | |
Diodes | STTH30R04W |
Switches | MOSFETS IRFP260N |
Figure 10(a) shows the waveforms of the output voltage, input voltage, and output current, respectively. Based on the data presented in this figure, the suggested converter is capable of producing an output voltage of 120 V when the input voltage is 40 V. Therefore, by referring to Equation (9), it can be concluded that the converter gain is consistent with the mentioned equation, and the results confirm this value. It is evident from Figure 10(b), which displays the waveform of the voltages and currents of the inductors, that when the
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
Figure 11(b) shows the voltages across the output capacitors of the proposed converter in boost mode. It can be observed that the voltage across the
Figure 12(a) shows the output voltage, input voltage, and output current of the proposed converter in buck mode. At the output, the voltage is reduced to 40 V when the input voltage is 120 V, as stated by the gain relation of the converter while it is operating in buck mode. Figure 12(b) shows the waveform of the inductor voltages and currents of the converter in the step-down mode, where, whenever the
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
An illustration of the waveform of the voltage across the switches and the current flowing through the inductors can be found in Figure 13. Similar to the boost mode, it is evident in this case that the highest voltage across the switches while they are off is 80 V, which is lower than the input voltage of the converter.
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
Figure 14 depicts the development of an experimental prototype of a BDC that has a power output of 100 W. This prototype was created and implemented in order to determine whether or not the proposed converter is feasible. Table 1 displays the experimental parameters.
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
4.2. Efficiency Analysis
The suggested converter has a minimal number of power switches, leading to a reduced quantity of MOSFET driver circuits and simplifying the management of output voltage. The quantity of capacitors is minimal. In order to analyze the efficiency of the proposed converter in step-up mode, parasitic resistances can be defined as follows:
The power losses of the switches
The switching loss on power switches can be found as follows:
The total losses of the switches
Resistive losses for the diodes
Forward voltage losses for the diodes
The power losses of capacitors
The conduction losses of inductors
The total power losses of the proposed converter in step-up mode can be presented as follows:
The efficiency of the proposed converter in step-up mode can be defined as follows:
A similar method may be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the converter while it is operating in step-down mode.
4.3. Experimental Results
The previous sections discuss the theoretical and mathematical calculations of the proposed converter. We have implemented a 100 W experimental prototype in this section. The efficiency results for the practical circuit are, as shown in Figure 15, in a satisfactory manner compatible with the findings of the simulation when it is operating in step-up mode. In the step-down mode, the simulation efficiency is 94.2%, while the practical efficiency for 100 W is 92.5%.
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
A positive pulse activates the
All main power switches implement a snubber circuit between the collector and emitter to prevent voltage spikes in the proposed converter. There are two different approaches to snubber circuits: the passive snubber, which is made up of passive components including resistors, inductors, capacitors, and diodes; and the active snubber, which makes use of semiconductor switches. In this application note, passive snubber is chosen, due to its simplicity and cost effectiveness. There are various topologies for passive snubber circuits, and in the proposed converter, due to its simple design and low cost, an RC snubber circuit has been used in the MOSFETs. Additionally, this snubber circuit in the aforementioned converter has effectively damped the voltage spikes. To obtain appropriate values for the components of the selected snubber circuit, the oscillation frequency was first measured without the snubber circuit using an oscilloscope. Then, a capacitor was placed in parallel with the MOSFET, and the oscillation frequency was measured again. The selected capacitor value was chosen experimentally, starting from 100 pF. Eventually, the frequency of oscillations was decreased to less than half, and mathematical relationships were used to estimate the value of the capacitor for the RC snubber circuit, which was 680 pF, and the value of the resistor, which was 33 Ω.
Figure 16 illustrated the output voltage and output current when the step-up mode is activated. In this mode, the input voltage is equal to 40 V, while the output voltage and output current are 120 V and 0.83 A, respectively.
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
Based on the voltage gain of the proposed converter in step-up mode, which is determined from Equation (9), the output voltage of the suggested converter is about 120 V for an input voltage of 40 V. This is demonstrated in Figure 16, and it is important to note that the proposed converter operates in step-up mode. Also, the currents flowing through the inductors
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
As illustrated in Figures 17(a) and 17(b), the converter is operating in CCM mode. As illustrated in Figure 17, when the converter operates in the initial mode with switches
Due to the fact that both
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
Figure. 19 illustrates that the voltage across
In Figure 20, it was demonstrated that the voltage stress on all of the power switches
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
4.4. Comparison Study
Table 2 presents a comparison between the proposed converter and existing BDCs that are considered in the literature. The values for voltage gain, number of semiconductors, voltage stress, and total count of devices are provided. The structure that is being proposed is more efficient and has fewer components in order to generate the minimum amount of voltage gain that is required. Figure 21 shows the voltage gain curve in the CCM mode as well as the efficiency of the proposed converter in addition to various topologies that are available.
Table 2
Comparison between the proposed converter and other structures.
Bidirectional converters | Voltage gain | Amount of semiconductors | Maximum voltage stress on semiconductors | Total devices |
Converter in [65] | 3 | 8 | ||
Converter in [66] | 4 | 12 | ||
Converter in [61] | 4 | 7 | ||
Proposed converter | 4 | 8 |
[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]
5. Conclusions
The purpose of this work was to propose a nonisolated BDC that is capable of providing effective regenerative braking in situations that include traction. In this structure, two inductors have been utilized for the purpose of increasing and reducing voltage in step-up mode and step-down mode, respectively. The suggested converter features a simple construction and utilizes a minimal amount of components. There will be a reduction in both the weight and the cost of the converter. As a result of the fact that both switches are operating in step-up and step-down modes simultaneously, the switching circuit is not complicated, and there is no possibility of a short circuit occurring. Because of the low-voltage stress that is placed on the switches, it is also conceivable to employ all switches of the same kind that have the same low-voltage characteristic. The following are the primary benefits of the converter that has been proposed:
• High power capability
• Optimal performance in both acceleration and brake
• A reasonable number of switching components
• Appropriate voltage gains for traction applications
• Simple control algorithm
In addition to the presentation of simulation findings, the proposed converter was also addressed. In the simulation and experiments, peak efficiencies were recorded at 94.2% and 92.5%, respectively. The results of the simulation demonstrated that the suggested converter had a suitable voltage gain. Additionally, it demonstrated low-voltage stress on the all switches and a reduction in the input current ripple by split it, which contributed to the simplicity of designing a practical prototype of the converter. By comparing the experimental results, it was clearly shown that, despite the nonisolated nature of the proposed converter, it is unsuitable for applications that require higher safety against electric shocks. Because of the beneficial properties of this converter and the fact that the inductors have a current ripple that is moderate, it has the potential to be an excellent option for traction applications in the near future.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
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Abstract
Improving the energy conservation through regenerative braking enhances the overall efficiency of the electric transportation system. In order to accomplish this purpose, the most significant function is played by bidirectional power electronics converters. This research proposes a nonisolated bidirectional DC–DC converter (BDC) for electric trains that is capable of converting energy from storage devices to the traction motor side and vice versa in an efficient manner. Furthermore, the simplicity structure, low volume and weight, low cost, and the straightforward switching strategy make it an excellent choice for many high-power applications such as electric trains. An analysis of the converter and a comprehensive discussion of the proposed scheme are presented. Additionally, a 100 W experimental prototype is developed and tested. Simulation and experimental results are highly compatible with the theoretical analysis that validates the proper functionality of the converter.
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Details






1 Department of Electrical Engineering Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University Tabriz Iran
2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Sohar University Sohar Oman
3 Electrical Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering Technology Al-Balqa Applied University Al-Salt Jordan