1. Introduction
Poultry products have occupied a distinct place in the human diet owing to their excellent nutritional properties. It is an ideal source of high-quality protein, vitamins, and minerals, therefore known as a highly nutritious food. In addition, poultry products, specifically chicken meat, supply lower fat and higher protein content than other meat species [1]. Chicken meat is leaner and healthier, containing considerably higher unsaturated fatty acids than red meats [2]. It has the distinction of being the world’s most popular meat, because of its lack of social and religious belief. As a result, consumers prefer chicken meat and meat products for their health benefits and overall acceptability [3]. During the past few years, the amount of chicken meat consumed has significantly grown. To preserve this industry’s long-term growth and competitiveness, the quality and safety of chicken meat products must be maintained during processing. Poultry processing industries supply different meat products, including meatballs, nuggets, sausage, and salami, which are very popular among consumers.
Rapid urbanization, transformation of eating habits, variety in taste, and lack of time for cooking and food processing have shifted the trends of hot meat consumption to convenient and ready-to-eat meat products. Among the different processed poultry products, chicken nuggets have recently grown in popularity as a fast-food item in Bangladesh, surpassing other meat items [4]. However, microbiological proliferation and oxidative rancidity are the two predominant causes that are responsible for the spoilage of raw meat and the quality deterioration of processed poultry products [5]. Consequently, food producers are looking forward to find solutions to increase the shelf life as well as the overall safety and quality of products, which is the primary issue confronting the poultry processing industry [6].
Herbs and spices, a vital part of the human diet, have been used for thousands of years in traditional medicine and to enhance food’s aroma, color, and flavor. Besides, these herbs and spices are well known for their antioxidative, preservative, and antimicrobial potentials [7, 8]. Centella asiatica (L.), which is regionally recognized as Thankuni is a popular traditional herb in South Asia, particularly in Bangladesh. It grows as a weed in wastelands and riverbeds. Bengali people consume it either in raw or in cooked form. Some traditional healers employ it in herbal treatments to heal wounds and illnesses. C. asiatica contains a variety of bioactive secondary metabolites, including p-coumaric acid, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, vitamin C, and β-carotene, which have antidiabetic, antibacterial, antifungal, antidiuretic, and antioxidant properties [9, 10]. Several natural extracts such as lemon (Citrus limon), Telakucha (Coccinia cordifolia), and coriander leaf (Eryngium foetidum) have been investigated for their capacity to increase the shelf life of poultry products [11–15]. There are no studies yet been done on poultry products specifically chicken nuggets fortified with the extracts from C. asiatica. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the phytochemicals, antioxidant, and antimicrobial potential of C. asiatica extract and its efficiency in improving the chicken nuggets’ shelf life.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Chemicals and Reagents
The chemicals and reagents used are as follows: FC’s (Folin–Ciocalteu) reagent (1.9–2.1 N), DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) reagent, trolox (97.0% purity), gallic acid (≥ 98.0% purity), quercetin, sodium nitrite (NaNO2), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), aluminum chloride (98.0% purity), methanol (≥ 99.6% purity), ethanol (≥ 95.0% purity), brilliant green agar (BGA), xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD) agar, mannitol salt agar (MSA), Mueller–Hinton agar (MHA), MacConkey agar, eosin-methylene blue (EMB) agar, and buffer peptone water. Most of these chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Seelze, Germany. All the chemicals are of analytical grade.
2.2. Collection of Plant Material
The whole plant of C. asiatica (Thankuni), belonging to the Apiaceae family, was collected from the rural areas of Chattogram district (22.5150° N, 91.7539° E), Bangladesh, during its mature phase in April–May 2023. The plant was taxonomically identified by an expert at the Bangladesh National Herbarium (BNH). The raw plant samples were arranged on trays in three separate groups: stems only, leaves only, and a mixture of both stems and leaves. They were then dried in a cabinet dryer at 60°C for 12 h. After drying, the plant materials were ground separately using a mechanical grinder to produce a fine powder. Equal amounts of powder from each group were then stored in food-grade airtight bags and kept at 4°C in a refrigerator.
2.3. Extract Preparation
Two different extract preparation methods were used: aqueous and methanolic. For the aqueous extraction method, 15 g of powdered C. asiatica was soaked in 200 mL of distilled water for 24 h at ambient temperature while being shaken. After that, the extract was concentrated to dryness using a cabinet dryer set to 50°C after being filtered using a cheesecloth. Furthermore, a grinder was used to properly grind the dry extract into a fine powder. Before being used, the powdered extract was placed in food-grade airtight bags at 4°C in a refrigerator. In methanolic extraction, 2 g of each powdered plant sample was refluxed with 20 mL of methanol for 72 h at 60 ± 2°C [16]. The mixtures were centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 20 min, after which the supernatants were filtered and concentrated using a cabinet dryer. The resulting powdered extract was then stored in food-grade airtight bags and refrigerated at 4°C until used.
2.4. Phytochemical Contents, Antioxidant Activity (AA), and Antimicrobial Potential of C. asiatica Extracts
2.4.1. Determination of Total Phenolic Content (TPC)
The TPC of C. asiatica extracts was measured according to the process described by Wanakai et al. [17] as well as Singleton et al. [18] with slight modifications. One milliliter of each sample was added to 1.5 mL of Folin–Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent (10% v/v) and was allowed to react for 3 min. Next, 1.5 mL of Na2CO3 (75 g/L) was added to the reaction mixture and left for 60 min at room temperature (25°C) in the dark, and the absorbance of the resulting blue complex was measured at 760 nm in a UV-visible spectrophotometer (UV-1800, Shimadzu, Japan). The obtained results were compared with the gallic acid standard curve (y = 0.0768x + 0.6870, R2 = 0.993), and the TPC was expressed as milligram gallic acid equivalents per 100 g of sample extract (mg GAE/100 g). However, TPC was calculated according to the following formula:
2.4.2. Determination of Total Flavonoid Content (TFC)
The TFC of the plant extracts was assayed using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method of Wanakai et al. [17] as well as Chang et al. [19] with slight modifications. In brief, 5 mL of ethanol (95%), 2.8 mL of distilled water, 0.1 mL of aluminum chloride (10%), and 0.1 mL of potassium acetate (1 mol/L) were included with 0.5 mL of each stock sample. The mixtures were then left to stand for 30 min at room temperature (25°C) in the dark, and the absorbance of the resultant solutions was measured against a blank reagent at 415 nm in a UV-visible spectrophotometer (UV-1800, Shimadzu, Japan). The TFC was calculated using the following formula and expressed as milligram QE equivalents per 100 g of sample extract (mg QE/100 g) using the linear regression value obtained from the quercetin standard curve (y = 0.0038x + 0.0027, R2 = 0.989).
2.4.3. Determination of Total Anthocyanin Content (TAC)
The TAC of C. asiatica extracts was determined calorimetrically according to the method described by Selim et al. [20] with slight modifications. Three milliliters of each sample was pipetted into a cuvette, and the absorbance of the resultant solution was measured against a blank reagent (ethanol) at 520 using a UV-visible spectrophotometer (UV-1800, Shimadzu, Japan). The TAC was calculated according to the following equation and expressed as milligrams of total anthocyanin per 100 g (mg TA/100 g).
2.4.4. Determination of AA
The DPPH scavenging activity of C. asiatica extracts was assessed following the method outlined by De Ancos et al. [21]. A 10 μL aliquot of the acidified methanolic extract was mixed with 3.9 mL of a 0.1 M methanolic DPPH solution and 90 μL of distilled water. The mixture was vigorously vortexed and then stored in the dark for 30 min. The absorbance was measured at 515 nm using a UV-visible spectrophotometer (UV-1800, Shimadzu, Japan), and the results were expressed as the percentage reduction in DPPH radical.
2.4.5. Determination of Antimicrobial Activity
The antimicrobial activity of C. asiatica was assessed using the disc diffusion method described by Bauer et al. [22]. The test involved Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella spp. The microbial cultures were evenly spread across the media using a sterile swab. C. asiatica plant extract was applied to a 6-mm diameter filter paper disc, which was prepared by diluting the crude extract in sterile distilled water. A control disc was loaded with sterile distilled water only. Both discs were placed on MHA plates, which had been presoaked with the microbial cultures for 5 min. The plates were then incubated at 37°C for 48 h. And the zone of inhibition was measured in millimeters using a plastic ruler (Figure 1).
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2.5. Formulation of Chicken Nuggets
The chicken nuggets were prepared following the methodology described by Madane et al. [23]. A 1 kg chicken breast was purchased from a supermarket in Chattogram, Bangladesh. The chicken was minced twice: first with a 6-mm grinding plate and then with a 4-mm plate. The minced meat was then divided into three distinct batches, with each batch’s composition determined according to the standard formulation outlined in Table 1.
Table 1 Formulation of chicken nuggets with different levels of C. asiatica extracts.
| Ingredients | Control | Sample A | Sample B |
| Chicken breast meat (g) | 300 | 297 | 294 |
| C. asiatica extracts (g) | 0 | 3 | 6 |
| Wheat flour (g) | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Salt (g) | 15 | 15 | 15 |
| Black pepper (g) | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Garlic paste (g) | 20 | 20 | 20 |
| Ginger paste (g) | 20 | 20 | 20 |
| Bread slices (g) | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Bread crumbs (g) | 200 | 200 | 200 |
| Egg | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| Phosphate (%) | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
| Ice flakes (%) | 20 | 20 | 20 |
| Refined vegetable oil (%) | 8 | 8 | 8 |
The first batch served as the control group, containing only meat without any plant extract. The subsequent batches included 1.0% and 2.0% C. asiatica extracts, designated as Sample A and Sample B, respectively. Each batch was processed separately using a bowl chopper. For the meat emulsion, the minced meat was combined with garlic paste, salt, ginger paste, black pepper, and phosphate in the chopper. Ice flakes were added to maintain a low temperature during chopping. Compressed bread slices were then incorporated, and the mixture was chopped continuously until all components were well blended. The emulsion was steam-boiled for 40 min to produce cooked chicken nuggets. The nuggets were then coated with bread crumbs, egg, and wheat flour before being shaped into small cubes (Figure 2). Finally, the prepared nuggets were sealed in LDPE pouches and stored at 4°C for future evaluation.
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2.6. Proximate Composition of Nuggets
The cooked meat nugget samples’ moisture, ash, protein, and fat content were determined by procedures prescribed by AOAC [24] using a hot air oven, muffle furnace, Kjeldahl assembly, and Soxhlet extraction apparatus, respectively. Carbohydrate was calculated from the standard equation stated by Musaiger and D’Souza [25].
2.7. Microbial Analysis of Nuggets
Microbial strains, including E. coli, Salmonella spp., and S. aureus, were subsequently detected after 7, 14, and 21 days of refrigerated storage. Each sample weighed 25 g, and each stomacher bag was aseptically filled with 225 mL of sterile buffered peptone water solution (0.1 g/100 mL). The stomacher bag was then used to homogenize the samples for 60 s. The BPW solution prepared appropriate serial decimal dilutions for each sample. Agar plates were covered with 0.1 mL of these serial dilutions of homogenate chickens. E. coli was determined using EMB agar and MacConkey agar as a medium after incubation for 18–24 h at 35°C in EMB agar and after incubation aerobically at 30°C–35°C for 18–72 h in MacConkey agar [26, 27]. Salmonella spp. was determined using BGA and XLD as the media. At 35°C, the plates were initially incubated, and the BGA was examined after 24 h. The plates were later incubated at 37°C [28], and the XLD agar was examined after 24 h [28, 29]. Determination of S. aureus was carried out on MSA medium following an incubation period of 24 h at 37°C [30]. The morphological characteristics of each growth medium were analyzed visually on all the plates.
2.8. Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess the differences between various treatments (control vs. different concentrations of C. asiatica extracts). Post hoc comparisons were performed using Fisher’s LSD test to identify specific differences between groups. The significance level was set at p < 0.05. All analyses were carried out using Minitab Statistical Software (Version 19.1). For all experiments, data were presented as the mean ± standard deviation of triplicate measurements.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Phytochemical Contents and AA of C. asiatica Extracts
Table 2 displays the phytochemical contents (TPC, TFC, and TAC) and AA of different fractions of C. asiatica with significant differences (p < 0.05). Leaf and stem of C. asiatica in combination produced the highest TPC (24.215 mg GAE/100 g) compared to stem (15.452 mg GAE/100 g) and leaf (13.078 mg GAE/100 g). Similarly, the combination of leaf and stem contributed to the highest TFC (104.358 mg QE/100 g) followed by leaf (98.469 mg QE/100 g) and stem (91.343 mg QE/100 g). Furthermore, the highest TAC was reported in the leaf (19.548 mg TA/100 g) of C. asiatica, while the lowest value was reported in the stem (9.319 mg TA/100 g). The highest inhibition of DPPH or AA was obtained in the stem (18.027%), while the lowest was reported in the leaf (13.658%).
Table 2 Phytochemical contents and antioxidant activity of C. asiatica leaf and stem.
| Parameters | Leaf | Stem | Leaf + stem |
| TPC (mg GAE/100 g) | 13.078 ± 0.530c | 15.452 ± 0.331b | 24.215 ± 0.543a |
| TFC (mg QE/100 g) | 98.469 ± 0.569b | 91.343 ± 0.510c | 104.358 ± 0.447a |
| TAC (mg TA/100 g) | 19.548 ± 0.043a | 9.319 ± 0.032c | 14.369 ± 0.336b |
| AA (% inhibition) | 13.658 ± 0.054c | 18.027 ± 0.038a | 15.360 ± 0.054b |
Phenolic compounds and flavonoids are well-known antioxidants present in various plant species, including C. asiatica, and are associated with various benefits for health, including anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic properties [31]. The combination of leaf and stem resulted in the highest total phenolic and flavonoid contents compared to either component alone in this study suggesting a potential synergistic effect between these plant parts. The present study also indicates that different parts of the plant may complement each other in terms of phytochemical composition, leading to enhanced AA. The water-soluble pigments known as anthocyanin give many fruits and vegetables their red, blue, and purple colors [32]. The presence of maximum anthocyanins in the leaf suggests a potential role in attracting pollinators or protecting the plant from environmental stressors [33]. Instead, the lowest anthocyanin content in the stem may reflect its different physiological function or developmental stage compared to the leaf. Regarding AA, the variation in DPPH inhibition among the tested samples indicates differences in their ability to scavenge free radicals. In C. asiatica, the stem showed the highest inhibition and the leaf the lowest which suggests that factors other than flavonoid and phenolic contents may contribute to AA. This highlights the complexity of AA in plants and the need to consider the overall phytochemical profile of plant extracts. However, the present study’s outcomes are in line with the findings of Polash et al. [10]. The measured concentrations are within the typical range found in medicinal plants and have been shown in previous studies to have potential antioxidant and antimicrobial effects [34, 35]. For practical use in food products like chicken nuggets, the concentration of these phytochemicals in the final product is well below levels that could pose a risk to human health [36]. Additionally, the amounts of leaf and stem extracts used in the chicken nuggets were selected based on their efficacy in preserving the product while ensuring safe consumption [37]. Consequently, the results provide insightful information about the composition of phytochemicals and AA of C. asiatica, highlighting the potential health benefits of utilizing both the leaf and stem components in functional food product development.
3.2. Antimicrobial Potential of C. asiatica Extracts
The methanolic extract of leaf and stem showed a greater susceptibility to E. coli and Salmonella when compared to aqueous extract (Table 3). The highest zone of inhibition appeared in the methanolic extract against Salmonella followed by E. coli. However, both aqueous and methanolic extract did not respond against S. aureus. The findings of the present study are also in line with Polash et al. [10]. However, gram-negative bacteria have distinct cell walls, which are responsible for the variation in the extracts’ antibacterial properties, that is, E. coli and Salmonella [38]. This difference might be attributed to the presence of different phenolic and other secondary metabolite constituents in the stem and leaf extracts [10]. Furthermore, being a polar solvent, methanol has a greater ability to extract the plant’s potent antibacterial components, which showed a higher activity against E. coli and Salmonella [39].
Table 3 Antimicrobial potential of C. asiatica leaf and stem.
| Sample | Zone of inhibition (mm) | ||
| Staphylococcus aureus | E. coli | Salmonella spp. | |
| Aqueous extract | No zone | No zone | No zone |
| Methanolic extract | No zone | 9 mm | 10 mm |
3.3. Proximate Composition of Chicken Nuggets
The results of the proximate composition of C. asiatica–fortified chicken nuggets are displayed in Table 4. The moisture, crude protein, fat, ash, and carbohydrate contents varied from 43.659% to 59.945%, 19.030% to 19.652%, 1.157% to 1.331%, 1.067% to 1.633%, and 18.250% to 34.209%, respectively, and all the samples have shown significant differences among all the parameters evaluated in this study (p < 0.05). The findings demonstrated that the addition of leaf and stem extract of C. asiatica increased the carbohydrate and crude protein content of the formulated nuggets. On the contrary, the content of fat, ash, and moisture deceased as the substitution progresses.
Table 4 Proximate composition of formulated chicken nuggets.
| Parameters | Control | Sample A | Sample B |
| Moisture (%) | 59.945 ± 0.0410a | 47.897 ± 0.035b | 43.659 ± 0.017c |
| Crude protein (%) | 19.030 ± 0.003c | 19.368 ± 0.004b | 19.652 ± 0.003a |
| Fat (%) | 1.331 ± 0.006a | 1.184 ± 0.008b | 1.157 ± 0.003c |
| Ash (%) | 1.633 ± 0.115a | 1.224 ± 0.264b | 1.067 ± 0.058c |
| Carbohydrate (%) | 18.250 ± 0.698c | 30.043 ± 0.332b | 34.209 ± 0.460a |
Improved carbohydrate and protein content might enhance the nutritional value of the nuggets, making them a potentially richer source of energy and essential nutrients. This could be particularly beneficial in contexts where access to diverse and nutrient-rich foods is limited [40]. However, similar findings were reported by El-Anany et al. [41] where they have concluded that cauliflower addition has increased the carbohydrate and protein content in chicken nuggets. C. asiatica extract is rich in various nutrients, including proteins and carbohydrates. Incorporating this extract into the chicken nugget formulation can directly increase the overall nutrient content of the product, contributing to higher levels of protein and carbohydrates [31]. Furthermore, C. asiatica extract possesses functional properties that enhance the chicken nuggets’ texture, moisture retention, and binding capacity during processing. This can facilitate the incorporation of more protein and carbohydrate-rich ingredients into the nugget mixture, effectively increasing their content in the final product.
However, the decrease in fat content could be perceived positively, especially considering the increasing concern about the health implications of excessive fat consumption. Lower fat content could potentially make these nuggets more appealing to individuals who are conscious of their dietary fat intake [42]. El-Anany et al. [41] also reported that the amount of fat in the nugget samples was decreased when varied amounts of cauliflower were used as a substitute for chicken skin. Powdered C. asiatica plants contain low levels of fat, ranging from 0.33% to 1.35% of dry weight [43]. This low-fat content of C. asiatica helps to lower the fat content of chicken nuggets formulated with different levels of C. asiatica. Moreover, the decreased moisture content in formulated chicken nuggets might play a crucial role in terms of the quality, acceptability, and shelf life of processed poultry products. The reduced moisture content in nuggets incorporated with C. asiatica extracts might be attributed to the condensed ability of water holding [44].
3.4. Effect of Storage Time on Phytochemicals and AA of Chicken Nuggets
The TPC, TFC, and AA of control, Sample A, and Sample B at different storage interval are presented in Figure 3. Obtained results clearly indicate the gradual reduction of phytochemical contents and AA as the time lapses. However, the addition of substantial amount of C. asiatica extracts somewhat displays these characteristics more slowly compared to control. On the first day of storage, TPC ranged from 2.167 to 2.391 mg GAE/100 g, while by the 21st day, it decreased to between 0.649 and 0.992 mg GAE/100 g. Sample B exhibited the highest TPC values (2.391 mg GAE/100 g) on the first day, whereas the control had the lowest TPC values (0.649 mg GAE/100 g) on the 21st day. Similar trends were observed for TFC and AA. The TFC of chicken nuggets ranged from 18.009 to 27.340 mg QE/100 g on the first day, but dropped to between 10.941 and 14.034 mg QE/100 g by the 21st day. On the first day, Sample B had the highest TFC (27.340 mg QE/100 g), while the control had the lowest (10.941 mg QE/100 g) on the 21st day. AA ranged from 1.680% to 2.611% on the first day and fell to between 0.653% and 1.279% on the 21st day. Sample B also showed the highest AA (2.611%) on the first day, compared to the lowest (0.653%) observed in the control on the 21st day. These findings are consistent with studies by Zhang et al. [45] and Vega Arroy et al. [46], which indicate that storage duration and conditions significantly impact phytochemical composition and reduce AA. The significant presence of phenolic compounds in Sample B likely contributes to these effects, as these compounds form a protective layer on the nuggets. According to Bashir et al. [47], this layer helps to prevent excessive moisture and reduces bacterial growth.
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3.5. Shelf Life of Chicken Nuggets Based on Microbial Analysis
Table 5 quantifies the shelf life of formulated chicken nuggets by microbial analysis. Sample B, containing 2% of C. asiatica extract, exhibited the highest inhibition of two predominant microbes responsible for food safety such as E. coli and Salmonella, for up to 21 days. Although Table 5 demonstrates the presence of S. aureus at 21 days, it still complies with the recommended safety standards for specific foodborne pathogens like S. aureus, E. coli, and Salmonella, which are < 20 (cfu/g), absence, and absence, respectively, as stated by the Center for Food Safety [48]. Therefore, findings of the present study suggest that with respect to E. coli, Salmonella, and S. aureus, the shelf life of the chicken nuggets formulated with a higher proportion of C. asiatica fractions appears to be well-preserved for at least 21 days, as indicated by the absence of significant bacterial growth or contamination. However, the shelf life could be influenced by other factors, including hygiene maintenance throughout the processing, storage conditions, and packaging material [49].
Table 5 Shelf life study of formulated chicken nuggets by microbial analysis.
| Bacteria | Sample | 7 days | 14 days | 21 days |
| E. coli | Control | − | + | + |
| Sample A | − | − | + | |
| Sample B | − | − | − | |
| Salmonella spp. | Control | − | − | + |
| Sample A | − | − | − | |
| Sample B | − | − | − | |
| Staphylococcus aureus | Control | − | + | + |
| Sample A | − | + | + | |
| Sample B | − | − | + |
4. Conclusion
The study on the phytochemicals, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties of C. asiatica extract, alongside its effectiveness in extending the chicken nuggets’ shelf life, reveals compelling insights into functional food development and preservation techniques. By meticulously analyzing the phytochemicals and antioxidant potential of C. asiatica’s leaf and stem, the research underscores the importance of utilizing both components for maximal efficacy. The findings indicate that extracts from both leaf and stem exhibit superior phenolic and flavonoid contents alongside potent AA compared to individual components. Moreover, the antimicrobial analysis reveals promising inhibitory effects against Salmonella and E. coli, highlighting the potential role of C. asiatica in enhancing food safety. However, the absence of response against S. aureus suggests the need for further exploration or alternative antimicrobial strategies. The study also clarifies the nutritional content of chicken nuggets and the impact of incorporating C. asiatica extracts on their shelf life. Results indicate a slower decline in phytochemical contents and AA in nuggets containing C. asiatica, emphasizing its possibility of using it as a natural food preservative. The industry can offer consumers products with enhanced nutritional value and extended shelf life by integrating natural extracts with proven health benefits, such as C. asiatica, into food formulations. However, further studies are warranted to explore optimal formulations and processing techniques to maximize the ability of C. asiatica in food preservation and health promotion.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Ethics Statement
The authors have nothing to report.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Funding
The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology of Bangladesh for financing this research.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the support provided by laboratory personnel in sample preparation and analysis.
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Abstract
The study was carried out to assess the phytochemicals, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties of Centella asiatica extract and its efficacy in enhancing the shelf life of poultry products including chicken nuggets. Initially, the total phenolic content (TPC), flavonoid content (TFC), anthocyanin content (TAC), and antioxidant activity (AA) of C. asiatica’s leaf and stem were examined. Subsequently, chicken nuggets were formulated with varying amounts of Thankuni extracts to evaluate their impact on proximate composition as well as their shelf life. Combinations of leaf and stem extracts of C. asiatica exhibited the highest TPC of 24.215 mg GAE/100 g and TFC of 104.358 mg QE/100 g compared to using either stem or leaf alone. Notably, the leaf extract demonstrated the highest TAC of 19.548 mg TA/100 g, while the stem extract displayed the highest AA of 18.027%. The methanolic extract showed substantial inhibition zones against Salmonella and Escherichia coli, whereas both aqueous and methanolic extracts showed no response against Staphylococcus aureus. Furthermore, the study analyzed the nutritional composition of chicken nuggets, finding variations in moisture, crude protein, fat, ash, and carbohydrate contents. Over time, there was a gradual decline in phytochemical contents and AA, although chicken nuggets containing a substantial amount of C. asiatica extract exhibited this decline more slowly compared to the control. Higher TPC value (2.391 mg GAE/100 g) was obtained in samples containing 2% Thankuni leaves and stem extract on the zeroth day, while the control samples without any C. asiatica addition showed minimum TPC values (0.649 GAE/100 g) by the 21st day of storage. Similar trends were also noted for TFC and AA. In conclusion, the study suggests that the phytochemical composition and AA of C. asiatica emphasize the importance of utilizing both leaf and stem components in functional food product development.
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Details
1 Department of Food Processing and Engineering, , Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (CVASU), , Chattogram, , Bangladesh,
2 Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology, , Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (CVASU), , Chattogram, , Bangladesh,
3 Department of Applied Food Science and Nutrition, , Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (CVASU), , Chattogram, , Bangladesh,
4 Department of Physiology, , Biochemistry and Pharmacology, , Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (CVASU), , Chattogram, , Bangladesh,