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Introduction
Groundwater serves as a critical natural resource globally, playing an indispensable role in supporting domestic consumption, agricultural production, and industrial activities [1]. Surface water is minimal in most parts of the world and not uniformly distributed; therefore, groundwater is the best alternative for providing water [2]. Globally, about 65% of groundwater is consumed for drinking, 20% for irrigation and livestock, and 15% for industrial and mining purposes [3]. However, groundwater quality degradation remains a critical issue in many parts of the world [4, 5].
In Ethiopia, groundwater is a very critical source of water for various applications, especially for domestic services [6, 7]. Despite the country's groundwater resource potential, accessibility and sanitation problems constrain its utilization, making Ethiopia one of the lowest-ranking countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [8]. Many Ethiopians rely on unprotected sources such as hand-dug wells, springs, streams, rivers, and seasonal ponds, which are frequently contaminated. These unsafe sources are the main contributors to waterborne and water-related diseases. The demand for clean water is increasing due to rapid population growth, infrastructure expansion, and economic development [8].
Groundwater quality assessments in Southern Ethiopia reveal diverse hydrogeochemical characteristics and suitability for drinking and irrigation. Ca-HCO3− was the predominant water type in the Andasa watershed of the Blue Nile Basin, with groundwater being primarily classified as good to outstanding for drinking. However, anthropogenic pollution affected certain areas [9]. Silicate hydrolysis and gypsum dissolution influenced groundwater quality in the Dawa River Basin study. Nitrate levels in specific samples exceeded the recommended limit, suggesting surface contamination [10]. In Holte town, the preponderance of samples was of the mixed Ca-Na-HCO3− type, and groundwater assessments revealed high levels of electrical conductivity, bicarbonate, and total dissolved solids. There is a necessity for consistent monitoring, as 42.9% of the samples were of poor quality, while 57.1% were of acceptable quality [11]. Most groundwater evaluates in the Yisr River basin of the Blue Nile Basin were considered appropriate for drinking and irrigation, with water quality ranging from good to extremely poor. Deep wells presented possible risks due to elevated levels of electrical conductivity (EC), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), magnesium hazard, and total dissolved solids (TDS) [12].
Further studies in the Meki River Basin indicated that groundwater transitioned from fresh...