2024, A Landmark Year for Climate Change and Global Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage: Annual Progress Review

Abstract

ABSTRACT

This annual review outlines the progress of carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies in 2024. As human‐induced CO₂ emissions continued to rise, the year presented critical challenges. Notably, 2024 was the hottest year on record and the first in which global temperatures exceeded preindustrial levels by more than 1.5°C, driving intensified efforts to advance CCUS. Scientific interest in CCUS grew significantly, with the annual number of related publications increasing by 11.4% compared to 2023, reaching 53,970. The total number of operational commercial CCUS facilities also expanded, rising by 16.3% to a total of 50. In the political area, governments introduced targeted policies to accelerate CCUS adoption, focusing on economic investment and specific implementation requirements.

Introduction

The Paris Agreement, enforced in 2015, aims to combat the rapid increase in CO₂ emissions by setting a goal to limit global warming to well below 2°C, ideally 1.5°C, above preindustrial levels [1–3]. However, this objective faced significant challenges in 2024. The Global Climate Highlights 2024 report identified 2024 as the hottest year on record, based on a multi-source global temperature data set dating back to 1850 [4]. It also marked the first year in which global temperatures exceeded preindustrial levels by more than 1.5°C (namely, 1.51°C–1.57°C), with CO₂ remaining the primary driver of this outcome [4].

The Global Carbon Budget report by the Global Carbon Project revealed that global CO₂ emissions from fossil fuels and industry rose to 37.4 Gt in 2024 [5], an increase of 0.4 Gt from 37.01 Gt in 2023. Additionally, atmospheric CO₂ concentrations reached 422.3 ppm in 2024, a 0.7% rise from 419.3 ppm in 2023 and a staggering 52% increase from the preindustrial level of 280 ppm in 1750 [6].

In response to these alarming trends, significant efforts were made in 2024 to advance carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies. This annual review summarizes publication statistics and highlights technical breakthroughs and industrial advancements, as well as policy developments for CCUS in 2024.

Methods

The methods used in this review are similar to those described in our previous article [7]. The number of publications related to CCUS were obtained from the Web of Science database using the search terms: “carbon capture” OR “CO₂ capture” OR “carbon utilization” OR “CO₂ utilization” OR “carbon conversion” OR “CO₂ conversion” OR “carbon storage” OR “CO₂ storage”. To categorize publications into specific fields, the following terms were used as MUST INCLUDE criteria: “adsorption,” “absorption,” “membrane separation,” “chemical looping,” “thermochemical,” “electrochemical,” “photoelectrochemical,” “photocatalysis,” “biological,” “geological storage,” “enhanced oil recovery,” “mineral carbonation,” or “CO₂ transport”. Additionally, the technological advances cited in this review were selected based on (1) the scientific/technical novelties of findings and (2) the impact of journals. Information on industry and policy was collected from multiple sources, including news articles, government reports, and databases, such as the Global CCS Institute's CO₂RE Database and the IEA's Policies and Measures Database. These sources, used for all searches in this review, had been updated for 2024 as of February 1, 2025.

Highlights for Academic Progress

As shown in Figure 1A, the total number of publications for CCUS increased by 11.4% in 2024 compared to 2023, reaching 53,970, and by 51.8% compared to 2020. Notably, although the growth slowed in 2023, it rebounded significantly in 2024. As recorded in Figures 1B–D, among the total publications, there are 12,418, 14,475, 758, and 105 publications on capture, utilization, storage, and transportation, respectively. Compared to 2020, publications in these four areas increased by 58.7%, 40.5%, 76.3%, and 150%, respectively. As shown by the data, carbon transportation experienced the most significant growth, reflecting a rapid rise in research attention over the past 5 years.

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Carbon Capture

Carbon-capture techniques include adsorption, absorption, membrane separation, and chemical looping with increased total number of publications in 2024 (Figure 1B), with the following order: adsorption (8315 publications) > absorption (3655 publications) > chemical looping (334 publications) > membrane separation (114 publications).

In 2024, effort on CO₂ adsorption grew rapidly, with studies primarily concentrated on several key areas such as efficiency, stability, and practicality. First, amino-functionalized adsorbents were widely investigated [8–12], achieving a record-high direct air capture capacity of 5.49 mmol g^-1 through using cold plasma [13]. Second, significant improvements were made in enhancing the desorption rate and the regeneration efficiency of CO₂ capture system [14, 15]; a 100% release ratio was achieved within 60 min at 20°C under solar-driven processes [15]. Third, excellent cyclic stability was demonstrated [16–18]; nitrogen-doped porous carbons (NPCs) can maintain their adsorption performance over 110 adsorption-desorption cycles under simulated flue gas conditions, highlighting their durability for industrial applications [17]. Additionally, increased adsorption selectivity (≈2000%) for CO₂ over N₂ was achieved, enhancing the practicality for real-world applications of CO₂ adsorption [19].

Optimized absorbent designs, including monoethanolamine (MEA), ionic liquid, and nonaqueous absorbents (NAAs), remain a key focus for significantly improving CO₂ absorption performance in 2024 [20–26]. For instance, porous carbon particles derived from sucrose (S-PCPs) were demonstrated to be an ideal absorbent, exhibiting a CO₂ capture capacity of 3.58 ± 0.03 mmol g_absorbent^-1 at 273 K under 1 atm pressure. Additionally, they demonstrated near-complete stability over at least 10 consecutive cycles, retaining over 90% of their adsorption capacity by the 10th use [27]. While the process is greatly limited by high energy demands for solvent regeneration, various efforts were made on addressing this drawback [28–31]. Representatively, a modular porous solid electrolyte (PSE) was designed to regenerate CO₂ and alkaline absorbent through hydrogen evolution and oxidation redox reactions, achieving energy consumption as low as 50 kJ mol_CO2^-1 at 1 mA cm⁻² and 118 kJ mol_CO2^-1 at 100 mA cm⁻² for bicarbonate. It also demonstrated ~90% capture capacity retention, over 100 h of stability, and industrial-scale carbon regeneration rates of up to 1 A cm⁻² (~18 mmol cm⁻² h⁻¹) [32].

In 2024, compared to adsorption and absorption methods for carbon capture, chemical looping and membrane separation remained less studied. In the field of chemical looping, significant progress was made in the design of new oxygen carriers [33], including breakthroughs in low-temperature CO₂ reduction [34, 35], and complete conversion of CO₂ to CO [36]. Additionally, novel integrated multigeneration systems were developed to enhance energy efficiency and CO₂ utilization rates [37–39]. Another emerging research focus was the integration chemical looping combustion with solid oxide fuel cells, which achieved zero CO₂ emission [40, 41] and zero-energy penalty CO₂ capture [42]. In membrane separation, research efforts primarily focused on optimizing both permeance and selectivity for industrial CO₂ separation [43–51]. Representatively, using a typical flue gas (30% CO₂/70% N₂ gas mixture), a modified mixed membrane matrix (MMX) demonstrated a selectivity of 577.8 and a permeability of 416.05 barrer [52]. Furthermore, a promising large-scale industrial CO₂ capture process was developed by integrating membrane separation with the hydrate method [53], and a more accurate predictive model for the performance of MOF-based MMMs in CO₂/N₂ separation was designed [54].

The biggest challenge for carbon capture is still lowering the cost for large-scale deployment of carbon capture technologies including post-combustion, precombustion, and oxyfuel combustion, which requires substantial investments in infrastructure, energy, and operational expenses. Currently, CO₂ capture technologies are highly energy-intensive, with an average cost of approximately $60 per ton of CO₂ capture [55], which has hindered its widespread adoption. To lower these costs, efforts are focused on enhancing capture efficiency, boosting system productivity, and incorporating renewable energy sources. Integrating renewables not only reduces operational costs but also promotes sustainability, especially in regions lacking fossil fuel resources. However, achieving economic viability requires substantial initial investment and the implementation of supportive policies.

Carbon Utilization

14,475 articles were published for carbon utilization in 2024, which is about 1.1 times that in 2023 (13,513 publications) and 1.2 times that in carbon capture (12,418 publications) (Figure 1C). Electrochemical conversion garnered the dominant attention with 9300 publications, which are much more than 2881 for photochemical conversion, 1337 for biological conversion, 637 for thermochemical conversion, 320 for photoelectrochemical conversion. The increased trend of publication numbers over the past 5 years remained stable.

Electrochemical conversion of CO₂ continued to focus on catalysts with activity conversion and selectivity for the production of value-added chemicals and fuels, including formic acid [56–58], methane [59, 60], ethylene [61–63], ethanol [64, 65], and others. Significant progress was also achieved in highly stable electrochemical conversion processes [57, 61, 66]. Representatively, a closed carbon loop of the formic acid formed through membrane electrode assembly [58]. This system achieved industrial-level current densities, producing 2 M formic acid continuously for 300 h. The Faradaic efficiency reached 94.2%, with a partial current density of 1.16 A cm⁻² and the production rate of 21.7 mmol cm⁻² h⁻¹. Practical assessment demonstrated that the generated formic acid could be used in air-breathing formic acid fuel cells, achieving a power density of 55 mW cm⁻² and a thermal efficiency of 20.1%. In addition, the reduction of CO₂ to formic acid with acid electrolyte in a proton-exchange membrane system operated continuously for more than 5200 h over a catalyst obtained from waste lead-acid batteries. The Faradaic efficiency of formic acid was 93% and the conversion efficiency for CO₂ reached 91% at a current density of 600 mA [67]. Notably, a high current density of 409 ± 15 mA cm⁻² and high stability (> 120 h) were achieved for CO₂-to-ethanol conversion. When implemented in a scale-up flow cell operating at an industrially relevant current for over 36 h, the system demonstrated a carbon loss of less than 2.5% and a single-pass carbon efficiency of 19% [68].

Photochemical conversion also garnered significant attention in 2024, particularly for expanding the range of light absorption [69, 70]. For instance, using a series of synthetic fluorinated chlorins as biomimetic chromophore, CO₂ could be reduced to 100% CO under 630 nm and 730 nm light irradiation, achieving turn over numbers of 1790 and 510, respectively. Remarkably, the system demonstrated stability for over 240 h and remained active even at a low CO₂ concentration of 1% [71]. In addition, C₂₊ products, such as ethanol and ethylene, obtained evident promotion in 2024 [72–75]. Among these, the coupling of photocatalytic CO₂ reduction and CH₃OH oxidation enabled the production of dimethoxymethane, achieving a yield of 5702.49 μmol g⁻¹ with 92.08% selectivity under 9 h of ultraviolet-visible irradiation, without the need for sacrificial agents [76]. Furthermore, as the first thermo-photo catalytic process in a fuel cell system, a novel thermo-photo catalytic CO₂ reforming of ethane was integrated into the carbonate-superstructured solid fuel cells (CSSFCs), achieving a record-high peak power density of 168 mW cm⁻² at a relatively low temperature of 550°C [77].

In contrast to the negative growth in the biological conversion of CO₂ in 2023, we experienced its resurgence in 2024. More efficient CO₂ fixed systems were developed, such as living porous ceramics, which can directly capture CO₂ from the air and convert toxic gases into a harmless scent detectable by humans [78]. Additionally, a novel bidirectional flow tidal bioreactor was introduced, achieving 95.0 ± 2.5% CH₄ and 90.8% H₂/CO production efficiency, significantly enhancing CO₂ biomethanation [79]. Furthermore, a new generator based on NAH composite was designed, which generated ions through CO₂ adsorption and utilizes their rate difference to produce electricity, enabling simultaneous carbon capture and energy conversion [80]. Enzymatic CO₂ conversion has made evident progress on stability and reusability through optimizing enzyme [81], developing enzyme carrier [82], or modulating reactor system [83]. Representatively, formate dehydrogenase used in a flow reactor system was developed achieving 1.74 M formate production with Faradaic efficiency of 100.1% and reaching the stability of 400 h [83].

Photoelectrochemical CO₂ reduction reactions have rarely been efficient in producing liquid products and multicarbon compounds. However, in 2024, significant progress was made, including the production of liquid formic acid at a rate of 17.3 mmol L⁻¹h⁻¹, with the process maintaining an average Faradaic efficiency of 88% over 100 h [84]. Additionally, ethylene production achieved a Faradaic efficiency of approximately 61% and a partial current density of 14.2 mA cm⁻², with stability maintained for 116 h [85]. Furthermore, by integrating biological conversion, a bias-free photochemical diode was developed, enabling CO₂ reduction to acetate coupled with glycerol oxidation reaction under low-intensity red light [86].

Combining carbon capture and carbon utilization offers a promising pathway to achieve net-zero emissions with low cost and high efficiency, while simultaneously producing high-valued materials to reduce reliance on traditional fuel sources. As a markable progress in 2024, researchers addressed the challenges of low CO₂ concentration and residual O₂ in flue gas via integrating electrochemical carbon capture and CO₂ reduction catalyzed by redox-active amine-grafted gold nanoparticles, achieving maximum CO Faradaic efficiency of 80.2% and lower energy consumption [87]. Additionally, combining CO₂ sorbent and catalytically active materials achieved CO₂ capture capacity of 10.3 mmol/g and generated 3.26–3.61 mmol g⁻¹ CO and 2.41–2.65 mmol g⁻¹ H₂ [88].

Future research on carbon utilization should place greater emphasis on techno-economic, energy, environmental, and life cycle considerations.

Carbon Storage and Transportation

Compared to other areas, carbon storage and transportation have received less attention. In 2024, the number of publications on carbon storage includes geological storage (345), enhanced oil recovery (276), and mineral carbonation (137), with fewer publications in each category, particularly in CO₂ transportation, which had the least focus, resulting in only 105 publications. However, all these areas exhibit a clear upward trend in publications (Figure 1D).

Geological storage, capable of storing gigatons of CO₂, is achieved by injecting CO₂ into land-based and oceanic reservoirs. To enhance long-term and large-scale storage capacity, new models were developed to evaluate injection and storage potential of CO₂ in various reservoirs in 2024 [89–94]. The Gulf of Mexico (GoM) was reported to be a potential CO₂ storage reservoir, about 1.05 gigatons of CO₂ storage capacity was revealed in the upper slope of the central GoM. Notably, the Mississippi Canyon and Green Canyon protraction areas host the field with most substantial storage potential [95]. Furthermore, abandoned mining areas were demonstrated available for CO₂ storage through the construction of an artificial cover layer. This approach could store 72.71 to 218.12 billion tons of supercritical CO₂ globally, with projected economic benefits ranging from 657.36 to 1991.47 billion USD. In addition, avoiding the leakage of CO₂ is crucial for geological storage [96, 97]. Marine CO₂ storage was widely investigated, including hydrate method and stabilization in sediments [98–100]. These studies highlight the necessity of minimizing disturbances from human activities to ensure stable CO₂ storage [101]. Combined with tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB), the decomposition rate of CO₂ hydrate was only one-seventh of that in pure water, which can effectively stabilize CO₂ sequestration [102].

This year, research on enhanced oil recovery (EOR) saw significant growth, with nearly 280 publications, marking a pronounced increase compared to 2023. Foam, a widely used agent in EOR, often suffers from poor stability at elevated temperatures. To address this issue, various foam systems have been developed to stabilize CO₂ foam under high reservoir temperatures [103–106]. Representatively, co-injecting silica aerogel nanoparticles could increase oil recovery from 49.39% to 73.21%, and the CO₂ sequestration rate rises from 45.35% to 83.37%. Furthermore, the content of generated oil asphaltene increased from 4.33 to 7.25 wt% [107].

Similarly, research on mineral carbonation also experienced a growth in 2024, with a focus on developing more effective and economic processes [108–112]. Notably, a Trinity green mining (TGM) concept, including CO₂ sequestration, solid waste treatment, and overburden movement mitigation, was reported to enable the industrial applications of CO₂ mineral carbonation available even at ambient conditions [113].

Compared to other technologies, CO₂ transportation remains in a relatively slow development phase. However, the number of publications in this field showed a relatively rapid growth rate this year. In most cases, since pipelines are the most cost-effective method for CO₂ transport, sharing pipelines can significantly reduce the pipeline mileage and transportation costs [114]. Major achievements include the use of oligopeptides to prevent blockages caused by CO₂ hydrate formation [115], and the development of a CO₂ pipeline design model for safety evaluation and theoretical model validation [116].

Overall, publications on carbon storage and transportation saw a significant increase in 2024, highlighting several key research directions. However, future research should focus more on the long-term formation damage in CO₂ storage caused by mineral dissolution and precipitation, as well as material corrosion in CO₂ transportation due to impurities in the CO₂.

Studies With Global View

Studies with global view were also conducted this year. As an important finding, global soils will shift from a carbon sink to a carbon source, releasing ~0.22–0.53 petagrams of carbon annually by the end of this century. This shift would contribute significantly to positive carbon feedback, making climate change mitigation considerably more challenging [117]. Additionally, to meet the growing global food demand, nitrogen fertilization will increase substantially, leading to an increase in the carbon footprint of food production to 21.2 Gt CO₂eq. However, under an ambitious mitigation strategy, this carbon footprint could be reduced to 5.6 Gt CO₂eq [118]. Another study on global CO₂ storage deployment projections revealed that, based on current government technology roadmaps, a realistic benchmark for global CO₂ storage suggests a storage rate of 5–6 Gt CO₂ per year [119]. These studies offer a comprehensive view of global CCUS, highlighting the need for continued research and innovation in the field.

Major Industrial Advancements

The total number of operational commercial CCUS facilities reached 50 worldwide in 2024, which is a 16.3% increase. Furthermore, the new operational facilities, listed in Table 1, contribute to a total capture, transport, and/or storage capacity by 0.523 million tons CO₂ per annum (Mtpa) [120]. Notably, four new operational facilities were announced in 2023, they actually started to be formally operated in 2024. Such as the Heirloom DAC California (0.001 Mtpa) [121] and the Barnet Zero CCS (0.185 Mtpa) [122] in USA. Second, like the Huaneng Yangpu Gas-fired Carbon Capture Demo Project (0.002 Mtpa) and Guanghui Energy Methanol Plant (0.1 Mtpa) [123] in China, they were put into trial in 2023 and then formally operated in 2024. The other three new operational facilities in 2024 are CarbFix Mammoth (0.03 Mtpa) in Iceland [124], Qingzhou Oxy-Fuel Combustion Carbon Capture (0.2 Mtpa) [125] in China, and Bantam DAC Oklahoma (0.005 Mtpa) in America [126]. This year, the Petrobras Santos Basin Pre-Salt Oil Field became the largest operational facility. It is the first to separate CO₂ associated with natural gas, with injection of CO₂ into production reservoirs, achieving capturing 10.6 Mtpa of CO₂ and making the displacement of water inside the reservoir even more efficient to boost production [127, 128]. Furthermore, more than 550 facilities are in construction or development this year, strongly forecasting a boosting development in the near future.

Table 1 Operational commercial carbon-capture and storage facilities [120].

Facility	Country	Year	Facility industry	Capacity (Mtpa)	Facility storage code
Heirloom DAC California	USA	2024 (announced in 2023)	Direct Air Capture	0.001	Mineral Carbonation
Barnett Zero CCS	USA	2024 (announced in 2023)	Natural Gas/LNG	0.185	Deep Saline Formation
Huaneng Yangpu Gas-fired Carbon Capture Demo Project	China	2024 (announced in 2023)	Power Generation and Heat	0.002	Enhanced Oil Recovery
Guanghui Energy Methanol Plant	China	2024 (announced in 2023)	Chemical	0.1	Enhanced Oil Recovery
CarbFix Mammoth	Iceland	2024	Direct Air Capture	0.03	Mineral Carbonation
Qingzhou Oxy-Fuel Combustion Carbon Capture	China	2024	Cement and Concrete	0.2	Enhanced Oil Recovery
Bantam DAC Oklahoma	USA	2024	Direct Air Capture	0.005	Enhanced Oil Recovery

The number of CCUS projects experienced significant expansion across the leading five nations, with the United States seeing an increase from 154 to 276, the United Kingdom growing from 45 to 65, Canada rising from 48 to 58, and China expanding from 21 to 25 [129]. Especially, some projects among them obtained the great development this year. As part of Flue2Chem project funded by Innovate UK, a significant breakthrough has been achieved in converting CO₂ into cleaning product ingredients. This study successfully produced ethanol using captured CO₂ from papermills in Cumbria and Scotland [130]. Additionally, the effort of 2024 also provided great opportunity to other projects for future [131].

Key Policy Developments

2024 is the year for the United Nations' 29th Conference of the Parties (COP29), which was held in Baku, Azerbaijan, from 11 to 22 November. The conference culminated into a consensus on financial strategies aimed at mitigate the impacts of climate change and supporting developing countries in their shift toward more sustainable energy solutions [132]. Additionally, an agreement on rules for a global market to trade carbon credits was achieved, which could facilitate billions of dollars into new projects to help fight global warming [133]. The regional policies announced or reformed this year will be highlighted in the following part.

This year, in north America, the US Department of Transportation's Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) was in the process of changing CO₂ pipeline safety regulation and proposed many new standards [134]. Also, the US EPA issued a new rule requiring existing coal and future natural gas plants to reduce their CO₂ emissions by 90% by 2032, through technologies including carbon capture [135]. In Canada, recent legislative developments, including the enactment of Bill C-59 (Fall Economic Statement Implementation Act, 2023) and Bill C-69 (Budget Implementation Act, 2024, No. 1) in June 2024, along with the draft legislative proposals released on August 12, 2024, have introduced significant updates to the investment tax credit (ITC) for CCUS. These updates aim to refine the CCUS ITC framework, clarify eligibility criteria, and enhance incentives for businesses investing in CCUS projects [136].

CCUS-related activities continue to thrive in the Asia Pacific region. This year, China issued 70 national standards covering carbon footprints, energy efficiency, energy consumption, and CCUS [137]. These standards are part of the country's broader efforts to achieve its carbon peak goals and promote sustainable development. Additionally, China published 2024–2025 Energy Conservation and Carbon Reduction Action Plan to guide the promotion of energy conservation and carbon reduction [138]. In Japan, the government announced to accept the use of durable carbon dioxide removal (CDR) voluntary carbon credits in its national emissions trading system in April 22, the Green Transformation (GX) ETS, which allows advancing global carbon capture and storage technologies [139]. Moreover, in May 17, a significant law, the CCS Business Bill, was promulgated to promote the adoption of CCS technologies [140]. Furthermore, in Australia, the government released the Future Gas Strategy in May 2024, which promotes the transition to a low-carbon economy in Australia and ensures reliable and cost-effective energy access while maintaining security [141].

In 2024, Europe introduced a series of policies and measures related to CCUS, to advance its carbon neutrality goals. In February, the European Commission adopted the industrial carbon management strategy, which identifies a set of actions to be taken at both EU and national level. This strategy aims to establish a unified CO₂ market across Europe and create a more attractive investment environment for industrial carbon management technologies [142]. Subsequently, in March, the EU passed the Net Zero Industry Act (NZIA), which sets an ambitious target of developing at least 50 million tons of annual CO₂ storage capacity in geological storage sites by 2030, further solidifying Europe's commitment to decarbonization [143]. Norway signed separate Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) with Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, and the Netherlands to facilitate the cross-border transport of CO₂ [144]; as did France and Denmark [145].

Summary

In 2024, a total of 53,970 research papers were published, with stronger focus on CO₂ adsorption and electrochemical conversion than others, reflecting the vibrant academic activity for CCUS. Meanwhile, more attention was paid to CO₂ storage and transportation, compared to the previous years. Additionally, the launch of seven new commercial CCUS facilities boosted global CO₂ capture capacity by 0.523 million tons annually. On the policy front, numerous reforms and announcements were implemented across key regions, including North America, Asia Pacific, and Europe. However, the emission amount of CO₂ still increased by 0.4 Gt compared to the previous year. Meanwhile, 2024 presented critical challenges as the hottest year on record and the first in which global temperatures exceeded preindustrial levels by more than 1.5°C (namely, 1.51°C–1.57°C). Therefore, more effective collaboration among academia, industry, and policymakers urgently needed to accelerate the advancement of CCUS technologies for a sustainable future.

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