1. Introduction
In recent years, several studies have focused on how the setting and environment of schools profoundly impacts students’ educational and emotional development (S. Maxwell et al., 2017; Molinari & Grazia, 2023a). As students progress through the academic journey, they encounter increasingly overwhelming demands for their social-emotional growth as their relationships with both their peers and educators evolve (Eccles et al., 1993). If students are not able to cope effectively with the challenges they inevitably encounter, this could ultimately result in their detachment from the school environment (Schmid et al., 2021), a reduction in their engagement in school activities in general (Lombardi et al., 2019), and eventually, their complete withdrawal from the educational process, manifested in absenteeism and anxiety about attending school (Havik & Ingul, 2021). The existing literature has already provided an extensive analysis of the potential factors involved in this process (Gonzálvez et al., 2019; Havik et al., 2015; Havik & Ingul, 2021). One of these factors is the school climate.
School climate is a multifaceted and complex concept reflecting “the quality and character of school life” (Cohen et al., 2009, p. 182) and encompasses both tangible and intangible aspects of the educational environment. Tangible elements include the physical environment and school curriculum, while intangible aspects involve the quality of relationships between students and their parents, teachers, management, and staff, safety and justice perceptions, and organizational norms and are often referred to as “School Atmosphere” (SAt) (Cohen et al., 2009; Roff & McAleer, 2001; M.-T. Wang & Degol, 2016; Haynes et al., 1997; Isaksen, 2007; Johnson & Stevens, 2006; Lubienski et al., 2008; Reyes et al., 2012; Sweetland & Hoy, 2000). Although “school climate” and “school atmosphere” are sometimes used interchangeably in the literature, it is important to recognize that School Atmosphere (SAt) represents a narrower—and in many ways deeper—slice of the broader climate construct. SAt is deliberately centered on the intangible, relational dimensions—peer–peer interactions, student–teacher trust, perceptions of fairness, and sense of belonging—without folding in every external or physical characteristic of the school (Molinari et al., 2013; S. Maxwell et al., 2017). It is also important to note that many scholars (T. Maxwell & Thomas, 1991; Van Houtte, 2005) distinguish “school culture”—which often refers to deeply embedded, collectively held values, norms, and practices—from more transient aspects of the school’s affective environment. While the use of “School Atmosphere” sits under the broader umbrella of school climate, the main focus here is on students’ perceptual experiences (interpersonal justice, sense of belonging, and relational support), rather than on stable cultural artifacts (e.g., mission statements and leadership ethos). In this sense, SAt captures the situational and experiential dimension—how students feel and interact day-to-day—whereas “school culture” would include both these perceptions and the underlying, shared collective beliefs, traditions, and core values that give rise to it (T. Maxwell & Thomas, 1991; Van Houtte, 2005). Focusing specifically on SAt thus offers two concrete advantages. First, it directs attention to the psychosocial “engine” that research shows most directly drives engagement, motivation, and emotional well-being (Molinari et al., 2013; S. Maxwell et al., 2017). Second, because SAt is explicitly relational (i.e., how students perceive and experience justice, belonging to school, peer and teacher support), it more readily pinpoints the interpersonal processes that interventions can target.
Following Grazia and Molinari (2021), SAt is composed of five distinct dimensions. First, the educational climate encompasses educational practices and expectations within the school. This dimension fosters a stimulating environment and learning opportunities. This also implies that teachers have high expectations for their abilities and potential. The second dimension, interpersonal justice, refers to the perception of fairness in disciplinary rules and practices. A climate of justice legitimizes adult authority and facilitates student guidance. The sense of belonging dimension develops when individuals perceive their environment as meaningful and welcoming. This manifests itself as a feeling of connection with the institution. The student relations dimension is defined by the quality of interactions between classmates. An encouraging relational climate among students fosters cooperation, reduces conflict, and promotes a sense of community within the classroom. Finally, the student–teacher relations dimension is equally crucial, as it involves constructive and trusting interactions between students and their teachers. A good investment in this relationship results in greater student engagement, better emotional support, and an environment in which students feel valued and heard.
Interpersonal relationships, particularly those between students and teachers, play a pivotal role in cultivating a positive SAt, which, in turn, enhances student engagement, leading to improved academic performance and social attitudes (S. Maxwell et al., 2017; Ogaz, 2016). Moreover, students’ perceptions of teachers’ behavior, which includes aspects of interpersonal justice, are associated with academic achievement, learning motivation, and a sense of belonging (Molinari et al., 2013).
A positive SAt is essential for fostering student engagement, school bonding, and identification (Fredricks et al., 2004), whereas students who perceive a lack of social support at school and who feel controlled by teachers or rejected by classmates are more likely to experience school aversion and estrangement (i.e., School Alienation—SAl) (Brown et al., 2003; Legault et al., 2006). The term “school alienation” is used to describe a subjective state of detachment from school characterized by a set of negative attitudes toward the social and academic aspects of school life. These attitudes encompass both cognitive and affective elements and are accompanied by a tendency to disengage from the school environment (Finn & Rock, 1997; Hascher & Hadjar, 2018; Hascher & Hagenauer, 2010). Therefore, SAl can be considered as a gradual process involving the development of negative evaluations and emotions that eventually predominate over positive evaluations and emotions, ultimately leading to a sense of estrangement from the school environment (Hascher & Hadjar, 2018). The phenomenon of SAl can be understood more effectively when three experiences are considered. First, learning experience must be considered. School subjects are often considered irrelevant by some students who are unable to establish a connection between their learning in school and their social reality, develop negative attitudes towards school, and alienate themselves from the learning process (i.e., learning alienation) (Altenbaugh et al., 1995; Caglar, 2013). Second, the less favorable and more restrictive attitudes that teachers display towards certain pupils in the classroom, which are perceived as more problematic (Baker, 1998; Hughes et al., 2005; McKown & Weinstein, 2008), result in those students exhibiting greater disobedience, estrangement from teachers, and alienation (i.e., teacher alienation) (Kagan, 1990). Third, relationships between students and their peers must be considered. If students do not feel accepted by their peers, they may experience social and emotional discomfort in the school environment and a lack of identification with the school system (i.e., classmate alienation) (Baker, 1998; Buhs & Ladd, 2001).
The consequences of SAl are profound, leading to poor academic outcomes and increased behavioral problems (Buzzai et al., 2021; Hadjar & Gross, 2016). Students who feel alienated are less likely to participate in classroom activities, leading to lower academic performance and diminished self-efficacy (Adam, 2023; Buzzai et al., 2021). This lack of engagement can create a vicious cycle in which poor academic performance further contributes to feelings of alienation, thus reinforcing the negative impact on students’ educational experiences (Buzzai et al., 2021; Hadjar & Gross, 2016). As previously mentioned, SAl is closely linked to SAt (Canlı & Demirtaş, 2022; Mahmoudi et al., 2018). A positive SAt, characterized by mutual respect, support, and trust, can mitigate feelings of alienation and foster a sense of belonging among students (Canlı & Demirtaş, 2022; Mahmoudi et al., 2018). Conversely, a negative SAt can exacerbate feelings of alienation, as students may perceive their environment as hostile or unwelcoming, leading to disengagement and a lack of motivation (Canlı & Demirtaş, 2022; Han & Demïrtaş, 2021).
Therefore, the quality of the SAt may influence whether students feel connected and secure within the school environment or become increasingly alienated, anxious, and disengaged, which may result in the potential development of school attendance problems (SAPs) such as school absenteeism and school refusal (SR) (Havik et al., 2015; Sorrenti et al., 2024; Thapa et al., 2013). The term “school refusal” is used to describe the experience of intense negative emotions when a young person is at school or anticipates attending school. These emotions are often accompanied by somatic symptoms that disappear when adolescents are allowed to avoid school and remain at home (Berg, 1997; Egger et al., 2003; Havik et al., 2015; Nair et al., 2013). Five clinical criteria were presented to frame this behavior: (1) reluctance, extreme difficulty attending school, or repeated refusal to attend school; (2) seeking the security and comfort of home and preferring to be near parental figures, especially during school hours; (3) displaying signs of emotional distress and upset when faced with the prospect of having to attend school, though this could manifest as an inexplicable physical symptom (such as headaches, nausea, dizziness, or back pain); (4) absence of serious antisocial tendencies, aside from possible aggressive behaviors when attempts are made to force school attendance; and (5) the problem is not kept secret from parents, who have made reasonable efforts to ensure the child’s attendance in school throughout the history of the problem (Berg, 1997; Gallé-Tessonneau & Gana, 2019). While SR refers to a specific form of child-motivated refusal to attend school, often associated with emotional distress and anxiety (Havik & Ingul, 2021; Kearney et al., 2004), SR behavior is a broader umbrella term that encompasses various types of problematic absenteeism, including SR, truancy, and attendance problems related to separation anxiety or attention-seeking behavior (Kearney et al., 2004). This wider concept is defined as “child-motivated refusal to attend school or difficulties remaining in school for the entire day” and may not be related to emotional distress about school (Havik & Ingul, 2021; Kearney & Silverman, 1996, p. 345).
Several studies have demonstrated links between SR and a variety of distinct psychological disorders, including conduct disorder, depression, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and school burnout (Devenney & O’Toole, 2021; Gonzálvez et al., 2019; Vinciguerra et al., 2021).
As evidenced by several studies, school climate, considered altogether in both tangible and intangible aspects, plays a pivotal role in the occurrence of SAPs. Students who experience a negative school climate are more likely to exhibit avoidance behaviors, such as absenteeism or refusal to attend school (Filippello et al., 2019; Havik & Ingul, 2021). Additional contributing factors include poor student–teacher relationships, negative peer interactions, academic challenges, and safety concerns. In contrast, a positive school climate can function as a protective factor, reducing the likelihood of developing SAPs by fostering a sense of belonging, competence, and support among students (Gallé-Tessonneau & Gana, 2019; Havik et al., 2015; Hendron & Kearney, 2016; Knollmann et al., 2019). Moreover, several studies have indicated that students who feel alienated from their educational environments often experience negative academic outcomes, including decreased participation in class and lower academic performance (Morinaj et al., 2019, 2020). This can also be linked to increased tendencies toward SR, as students may seek to avoid stressors associated with school attendance (Liu et al., 2021; Prabhuswamy, 2018).
The Present Study
Fostering an enjoyable SAt may be a useful strategy to avoid SAl, promote well-being, and increase school attendance. The existing literature predominantly examines the school climate, encompassing both its tangible and intangible dimensions collectively. In contrast, this study narrows its focus specifically to the SAt, placing greater emphasis on its intangible aspects, such as interpersonal relationships, educational climate, and sense of belonging. Pupils can be shielded from absenteeism-causing factors and motivated to attend class by the value of their interpersonal relationships, their sense of community within the school, their perceptions of school justice, the supportive and encouraging environment in the classroom (Liu et al., 2021), and their engagement and attachment to learning, classmates, and teachers (Buzzai et al., 2021).
To the best of our knowledge, the link between perception of SAt and SR has been neglected. Furthermore, the extant literature lacks a comprehensive model that elucidates the relationships between students’ perceived SAt, SAl, and SR.
This study aims to investigate, through a structural equation model (SEM), the mediating role of SAl (learning alienation, teacher alienation, and classmate alienation) in the association between students’ perceived SAt (student relations, student–teacher relations, educational climate, sense of belonging, and interpersonal justice) and SR (anxious anticipation, difficult transition, interpersonal discomfort, and school avoidance). Considering the existing literature and in alignment with the models proposed by Grazia and Molinari (2021), Hascher and Hadjar (2018), and Gallé-Tessonneau and Dahéron (2020), we expected that one or more dimensions of students’ perceived SAt would exhibit a direct relationship with one or more dimensions of the SAl, and consequently, an indirect relationship with SR.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
The study sample consisted of 528 Italian high school students with an average age of 16 years (SD = 1.38; range 14–20 years); 248 were males (50.8%), 268 were female (47%), and 12 (2.3%) preferred not to specify their sex. Participants were selected from high schools in Italy with various study orientations (linguistic, scientific, classical, artistic, social sciences, technical, occupational, etc.) using a random sampling procedure.
2.2. Instruments
A demographic questionnaire was used to gather essential demographic details from participants, including age, sex, and region of origin. In addition, the questionnaire captured information about the study orientation of the participants.
The School Atmosphere subscale of the Italian version of the Multidimensional School Climate Questionnaire (MSCQ) (Grazia & Molinari, 2021) was used to measure the perceived SAt. It consists of 22 items on a 6-point Likert scale, which ranged from 0 (“completely disagree”) to 5 (“completely agree”), grouped into five subscales: student relations (SR; 5 items, e.g., “In this school, students treat each other with respect”), student–teacher relations (STR; 4 items, e.g., “In this school, in general, relations between students and teachers are friendly”), educational climate (EC; 5 items, e.g., “In this school students are expected to give their best”), sense of belonging (SB; 5 items, e.g., “In this school, I feel really comfortable”), and interpersonal justice (IJ; 3 items, e.g., “In this school students are treated fairly”). The reliability and validity of the Italian version of the MSCQ has been demonstrated in a previous study (Grazia & Molinari, 2021).
The School Alienation Scale (SALS) (Morinaj et al., 2020) was used to measure SAl. It consists of 23 items rated on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (“disagree”) to 4 (“agree”). Three different subscales are encompassed: learning alienation (8 items, e.g., “The things we learn in school are boring”), teacher alienation (7 items, e.g., “I don’t think the teachers understand me”), and classmate alienation (8 items, e.g., “In my class I feel like someone who doesn’t fit in”).
To assess school refusal, the SChool REfusal EvaluatioN (SCREEN) (Gallé-Tessonneau & Dahéron, 2020) was used. It consists of 18 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (“not at all like me”) to 5 (“much like me”). It encompasses four subscales that measure anxious anticipation (AA; 5 items, e.g., “I’m afraid to go to school”), difficult transition (DT; 4 items, e.g., “I tell my parents that I don’t want to go to school, and I want to stay at home”), interpersonal discomfort (ID; 5 items, e.g., “I’m afraid of what others in my class think of me”), and school avoidance (SAt; 4 items, e.g., “I often ask that my parents be called to come to pick me up when I’m at school”).
2.3. Procedure
This study strictly adhered to the Ethical Code of the Italian Association of Psychology (AIP). All participants provided written informed consent following the Declaration of Helsinki (2013). The research protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Alicante [UA-2023-06-29-4]. The participants in the study were limited to those who returned signed informed consent forms. Subsequently, participants completed the questionnaires in a single session. Measures were in place to ensure privacy and anonymity, and participation was required for 20–30 min.
2.4. Data Analysis
RStudio (version 2024.12.1), with the psych package (Revelle, 2018), was used to conduct descriptive statistics, Cronbach’s alpha, and correlations. RStudio with the lavaan package (Rosseel, 2012) was used to perform structural equation modeling (SEM) with latent variables. The SEM approach was selected because of its ability to simultaneously test multiple dependent variables and its demonstrated superiority over traditional univariate and multivariate approaches (Iacobucci et al., 2007; Kline, 2023). SEM also offers the possibility of defining latent variables instead of measured variables, under the assumption that the measured variables are assessed without error (Coffman & MacCallum, 2005). In structural equation modeling (SEM) with latent variables, the constructs measured by a questionnaire are conceptualized as latent variables, necessitating multiple indicators for all evaluated constructs. Each latent construct’s parcel comprises the aggregated mean of the questionnaire items, with participants’ responses measured on a common scale. A parcel is defined as an aggregate-level indicator derived from the sum or average of two or more questionnaire responses or items (Little et al., 2002). Parcels (groups) of items were used as indicators for all constructs. The decision to employ parceling was made by considering its capacity to enhance commonality among indicators, diminish random errors, improve modeling efficiency, and normalize distributions, in contrast to the use of individual items and total scale scores (Bagozzi & Edwards, 1998; Coffman & MacCallum, 2005; Hau & Marsh, 2004; Kishton & Widaman, 1994; MacCallum et al., 1999; Matsunaga, 2008). When evaluating the model fit, it is generally recommended to employ parcel-level analysis over item-level analysis because of its psychometric and estimation advantages. Parcels reflect a strategy aimed at equalizing the influence of the factor across item parcels (Hall et al., 1999). We applied a 95% bias-corrected confidence interval using 5000 bootstrap replication samples to estimate the direct and indirect effects, following the recommendations of Wu and Jia (2013), Preacher and Hayes (2008), and Shrout and Bolger (2002). Several fit indices were assessed, including the chi-square (χ2) value, χ2/df, the comparative fit index (CFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) with a 90% confidence interval (CI) (for a description of these indices, see J. F. Hair et al., 2006). The cut-off for a good model fit was achieved when the CFI values were >0.90, and the RMSEA was <0.08 (Kline, 2023). The model also included gender and age as control variables.
3. Results
Cronbach’s alpha (α) was used to assess the internal consistency of the questionnaires. Cronbach’s alpha for the single variables of the SAt subscale of the MSCQ indicated good reliability (educational climate: α = 0.89; student–teacher relation: α = 0.88; student relation: α = 0.85; interpersonal justice: α = 0.88; and sense of belonging: α = 0.79). The SALS subscales showed good and excellent reliability (learning alienation: α = 0.85; teacher alienation: α = 0.86; and classmate alienation: α = 0.91). Finally, the SCREEN scales exhibited good-to-questionable reliability (anxious anticipation: α = 0.84; difficult transition: α = 0.80; interpersonal discomfort: α = 0.72; and school avoidance: α = 0.60).
Structural equation modeling (SEM) with latent variables was employed to investigate the mediating role of SAl (learning alienation, teacher alienation, and classmate alienation) in the association between SAt (student relations, student–teacher relations, educational climate, sense of belonging, and interpersonal justice) and SR (anxious anticipation, difficult transition, interpersonal discomfort, and school avoidance). Estimation of this model did yield a good fit [2 (496) = 9740.237, p = 0.000, CFI = 0.92, SRMR = 0.04, RMSEA (90%CI) = 0.05 (0.054, 0.062)]. Results are shown in Figure 1 and Table 1.
4. Discussion
Recent studies have investigated the significant impact of school climate on student well-being (Buzzai et al., 2022). In particular, a positive school climate may encourage school attendance, enhance relationships with peers and teachers, and foster a sense of belonging at school. Conversely, some studies indicate that a negative school climate may contribute to the emergence of SR (Allen & Boyle, 2022; Filippello et al., 2019) and a sense of alienation from school activities (Havik & Ingul, 2021). The literature has identified that the school environment consists of both tangible (i.e., school climate) and intangible components (i.e., SAt) (Baafi, 2020; Wuletu et al., 2024). A significant number of studies in the literature examine school climate by considering both its tangible and intangible dimensions collectively, but in this study, we focused on the intangible components of the school environment, which may be most related to SAl and SR. The relationship between SAt, SAl (learning, teacher, and classmate alienation), and SR (anxious anticipation, difficult transition, interpersonal discomfort, and school avoidance) has been neglected in the literature. Furthermore, to the best of our knowledge, no study has considered these three variables together in the same model and analyzed the mediating role of SAl (learning alienation, teacher alienation, and classmate alienation) between SAt (student relations, student–teacher relations, educational climate, sense of belonging, and interpersonal justice) and SR (anxious anticipation, difficult transition, interpersonal discomfort, and school avoidance) in a sample of high school students. Therefore, this study aimed to provide a comprehensive model to elucidate these relationships. The hypothesis posited that a positive SAt (student relations, student–teacher relations, sense of belonging, and interpersonal justice) could be negatively associated with SR (anxious anticipation, difficult transition, interpersonal discomfort, and school avoidance). Conversely, a negative SAt could be positively associated with SR.
Our hypotheses are partially supported by the results of SEM with latent variables.
Considering the direct relationships between the dimensions of the SAt and various forms of SAl, it is possible to note that interpersonal justice is negatively related to learning alienation. The perception of a fair environment in which the rules are applied equally to all students may foster a lower propensity for a sense of detachment from the learning content. This finding is consistent with previous research that highlights the impact of students’ perceptions of a fair school environment on their learning (Caglar, 2013), fostering trust, inclusion, and respect and reducing alienation by mitigating feelings of powerlessness, isolation, and meaninglessness. Conversely, perceived unfairness amplifies alienation, which leads to disengagement and diminished motivation.
Moreover, three dimensions of the SAt (educational climate, interpersonal justice, and sense of belonging) are related to the teacher alienation dimension. Specifically, the educational climate is positively related to teacher alienation. Our findings align with those of several studies that suggest that students in an educational environment in which they perceive that teachers attribute more importance to their performance, rather than their needs, are more likely to feel detached from their teachers because they feel they do not have a trust-based relationship and respect from them (Hadjar et al., 2021; Tomaszek, 2023). Furthermore, Lee et al. (2023) described how students engaged in environments where academic achievement is prioritized may feel pressured by teachers, leading to decreased academic engagement. As students perceive more academic pressure without adequate emotional support, their motivation and desire to participate in school activities often diminish, resulting in a feeling of disconnection from the school community, including teachers (Mahmoudi et al., 2018). Conversely, interpersonal justice and sense of belonging are negatively related to teacher alienation. In line with previous research, these relationships show that students’ perception of a fair and equitable school environment and feeling connected to it can lead to a reduced sense of detachment from their teachers (Hascher & Hadjar, 2018; Schmid et al., 2021; Steuer et al., 2024). This highlights the pivotal role that teachers play in students’ academic, social, and emotional well-being and development (M. Wang & Fredricks, 2014).
Furthermore, four of the five dimensions of SAt (educational climate, student–teacher relations, student relations, and sense of belonging) are linked to the dimension of classmate alienation. In particular, our results highlight that student relations and sense of belonging are positively related to classmate alienation. This finding contrasts with the prevailing view in the literature, which suggests that, when students have robust and encouraging relationships with their peers, they are less likely to experience feelings of isolation or exclusion (Butler et al., 2022; Morinaj et al., 2019; Schmid et al., 2021; Țepordei et al., 2023). However, there may be exceptional circumstances. For instance, a student may have a close-knit group of friends who share similar experiences of isolation or exclusion within the broader school community. This shared experience can foster a sense of solidarity and understanding; however, it might also reinforce feelings of alienation from the larger school population, similar to what happens among college students (Ferguson & Lareau, 2021). In such cases, while students may feel connected and supported by their immediate peer group, they may still experience a sense of disconnection from the wider class group (Almeida et al., 2022; E. C. Hair et al., 2009; Zengilowski et al., 2023). Conversely, the educational climate and student–teacher relations were found to be negatively associated with classmate alienation. Indeed, an educational environment that encourages students to strive for excellence and emphasizes student performance may foster a supportive learning atmosphere in which students team up to achieve the results expected by the school together as a class (Marcin et al., 2019; Schmid et al., 2021). Moreover, our results align with literature findings indicating that the quality of student–teacher relationships may be crucial for fostering peer acceptance and inclusion, thereby reducing alienation from them (Atiq, 2023; Santos et al., 2016).
Furthermore, considering the relationship between SAt and SR, our findings suggest that the educational climate dimension was positively related to two of the four dimensions of SR (anxious anticipation and interpersonal discomfort). Consistent with the existing literature, our results indicate that a student’s perception of a rigid and competitive educational climate, in which the normative value of performance is emphasized, may lead adolescents to experience a sense of anxiety about having to deal with such an educational climate, and thus the prospect of having to attend school (Liu et al., 2021). Furthermore, our results indicate that the perception of an educational setting characterized by rigidity and a pervasive emphasis on compliance and high expectations, which do not make the student feel a sense of control over their own performance, reduces their sense of self-realization (Ryan & Deci, 2017). This may induce students to seek personal comfort elsewhere, often leading them not to attend school, because it is seen as a place of interpersonal discomfort (Gallé-Tessonneau & Gana, 2019). This is supported by the existing literature (Eccles & Roeser, 2011; Hamre & Pianta, 2005).
In addition, our results showed that the sense of belonging dimension was negatively correlated with the dimensions of anxious anticipation and interpersonal discomfort. According to the existing literature, and according to our results, a sense of connectedness to the school community causes it to be perceived as a welcoming and safe environment in which students can securely undergo positive self-experience, which can reduce students’ negative emotions related to school (i.e., anticipatory anxiety) and interpersonal situations (i.e., interpersonal discomfort) (Carpentieri et al., 2022; Demanet & Van Houtte, 2012; Foster et al., 2017; Gallé-Tessonneau & Dahéron, 2020; Molinari & Grazia, 2023b).
Furthermore, our results highlight that the dimension of interpersonal justice appears to be positively related to both the anxious anticipation and difficult transition dimensions. Although several studies have shown that, usually, students’ perception of being treated fairly and respectfully by teachers contributes to active and regular participation in school activities (Mameli et al., 2022; Umlauft & Dalbert, 2017), our results may indicate that a sense of fairness from the school community could lead students who perceive high levels of interpersonal justice to feel additional pressure to commit to abiding by school rules, also to avoid incurring punishment, potentially exacerbating their anxiety regarding attending school (Donat et al., 2018).
Moreover, the findings of this study indicate that certain dimensions of SAl are directly associated with variables of SR. Specifically, learning alienation is positively linked to difficult transition, while teacher alienation is positively related to difficult transition and anxious components of SR (anxious anticipation and school avoidance). Several studies have demonstrated that when students perceive their learning experience to be boring or feel disengaged from their studies, it can result in emotional disengagement, thus making it difficult for the student to attend school (Kearney et al., 2022; Morinaj & Hascher, 2019; Virtanen et al., 2021). Moreover, students who do not feel comfortable with their teachers and who do not feel supported by them may anticipate upcoming lessons or assessments with anxiety, request to stay home from school more often, and, more generally, are more likely to avoid school (Fernández-Sogorb et al., 2021; Finning et al., 2019).
The analysis of indirect relationships revealed several statistically significant pathways, both via learning alienation and via teacher alienation. Our findings indicate a negative relationship between interpersonal justice and difficult transition as well as between sense of belonging and difficult transition through learning alienation. While there is already a direct relationship between sense of belonging and difficulty transition, this relationship is further enhanced by the mediating role of learning alienation, while learning alienation plays a key role in explaining the relationship between interpersonal justice and difficult transitions, which are not directly related. This may suggest that students who perceive an educational environment characterized by fair rules and feel involved in their school community are more likely to be involved in educational activities, which in turn may result in a lower level of disinterest in learning. This could potentially contribute to a reduction in difficulties experienced during the transition from home to school (M.-T. Wang & Eccles, 2013; M.-T. Wang & Holcombe, 2010).
Furthermore, the results of this study indicate the important mediating role of teacher alienation. Specifically, a school environment perceived by students as fair and equitable reduces the sense of alienation from teachers, decreasing the risk of SR (anxious anticipation, difficult transition, interpersonal discomfort, and school avoidance). This is supported by the literature showing that students who perceive that teachers enforce rules fairly, express positive sentiments about the school, and feel a sense of belonging within the school community may feel more inclined to trust their teachers and experience fewer difficulties in going to school and remain at school (Caglar, 2013; Havik et al., 2015; Osterman, 2023; Salter et al., 2024).
In addition, our results highlight that students perceiving themselves as accepted, respected, included, and supported by others in the school social environment are less likely to experience alienation from teachers and thus anxiety related to school and classmates. Teachers who are perceived by pupils as understanding (Caglar, 2013; Osterman, 2023) could lead to an improvement in peer relations, as students feel more comfortable with their classmates and live through school experiences as less anxious (Gravett & Winstone, 2022; Ibrahim & El Zaatari, 2020).
Furthermore, the results of this study highlight how the perception of a rigid educational climate could promote detachment from teachers and thus foster anticipatory anxiety. Following the literature, this may suggest that a school environment in which teachers prioritize student success, characterized by rigidity and high expectations, could create a sense of disengagement from the teacher figure in the student (Deniz & Kazu, 2022), which may subsequently result in feelings of anxiety toward school demands (Buzzai et al., 2022; Havik & Ingul, 2021; Morinaj & Hascher, 2019).
5. Conclusions
The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between students’ perceptions of SAt and SR through the mediating role of SAl. Using a SEM, the direct and indirect relationships between SAt, SAl, and SR were explored. The findings of the study indicated that the dimensions of SAl, particularly teacher alienation, play a pivotal role in mediating the relationship between perceptions of SAt and SR. Furthermore, aspects such as interpersonal justice, a sense of belonging, and educational climate have been found to be linked to feelings of alienation toward teachers.
Therefore, according to our results, the key role of teacher alienation must be considered. It mediates the relationship between some dimensions of perceived atmosphere and all dimensions of SR. Moreover, students’ perceptions of fairness, belonging, and educational environment can reduce feelings of detachment toward the teacher and thus diminish students’ sense of anxiety in attending and remaining at school. Furthermore, through learning alienation, the relationship between interpersonal justice and difficult transitions can be explained. This highlights how an environment perceived as fair could reduce the difficulties related to leaving home to go to school.
Thus, this study enhances our understanding of the mediating role of SAl in the relationship between the perceived SAt and SR. By focusing on SAl as a mediator, this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how interventions targeting SAt can address the underlying causes of disengagement and SR, thus providing a pathway to more effective strategies for fostering student success. Addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach that considers the psychological and social needs of adolescents, fostering supportive environments that mitigate feelings of alienation and promote school engagement.
Limitations and Future Directions
Although this study offers valuable insights and contributes to our understanding of the factors associated with SR, it is important to recognize its limitations. Firstly, the cross-sectional nature of the study prevents the establishment of causality. Future experimental and longitudinal research is necessary to establish causality and gain a deeper understanding of the long-term effects. Additionally, the convenience sample recruited from Italian high school students may limit the generalizability of our findings not only to other educational settings but also to different cultures. Cross-cultural studies have shown that perceptions of school climate and experiences of alienation vary significantly in contexts with different cultural orientations (Ooi & Cortina, 2023; Bardach et al., 2024). In contexts characterized by strong collectivist values, a cooperative school climate seems to reinforce the sense of belonging, reducing alienation, while in more individualistic societies, excessive attention to performance can translate into different pressures, influencing the student–teacher relationship in different ways (Ooi & Cortina, 2023). Consequently, our results—based on an Italian sample—may not be fully replicable in countries where, for example, group cohesion or respect for school authority manifest themselves in different ways. Therefore, it would be appropriate to replicate the study with students attending other educational settings and belonging to other cultures. Moreover, the study was based on self-reported data, which may be influenced by biases such as social desirability or inaccurate self-assessment. For future studies, it would be beneficial to consider additional methods of data collection, such as direct observation, interviews, or focus groups, in addition to self-reports. Furthermore, the school avoidance subscale’s lower internal consistency (α = 0.60) may have introduced measurement error, potentially attenuating associations with other constructs and slightly worsening model fit. Future studies should use a more reliable avoidance measure to confirm these findings. Also, we did not include family socioeconomic status (e.g., parental education or household income) or broader cultural background variables (e.g., ethnicity, migrant status, or languages spoken at home), even though such factors are well-established predictors of both students’ perceptions of school environment and their academic engagement (La Salle et al., 2015; Sirin, 2005). By omitting these variables, our model may not fully capture potential pathways in which family-level conditions influence school atmosphere, alienation, and refusal. However, in this study we aimed to isolate the unique, proximal contribution of the SAt on SAl and SR. Moreover, by focusing exclusively on school-level processes, we underscored the modifiable nature of the school environment (Eccles & Roeser, 2011). Family-level conditions, while important, often represent deeply ingrained factors that schools have limited capacity to change in the short term (Sirin, 2005). This approach clarifies the standalone role of school-level interventions before incorporating family-level moderators in future work. Finally, it is important to consider that bullying—both traditional and online—is often reported as one of the main causes of SR (Delgado et al., 2019; Ochi et al., 2020). Future research should consider including detailed measures of bullying to assess its impact on these dynamics and to better understand how victimization contributes to these phenomena.
Despite these limitations, our study contributes to the existing literature by exploring the relationship between perceived SAt, SAl, and SR. This study is one of the first to investigate the mediating role of SAl between these variables among Italian high school students. By presenting a model that integrates these variables, it enhances the theoretical understanding of how psychosocial factors in the school setting can influence both emotional and academic dimensions of student life.
To gain a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between these dimensions, future studies should consider different individual and contextual variables that may influence the investigated phenomenon. In particular, it would be interesting to explore the socioeconomic status of the family, as it can significantly impact both SAt perceptions and SR. Furthermore, family dynamics and parenting styles could be explored in more detail, considering the crucial role that the home environment plays in shaping students’ attitudes toward school and their ability to cope with academic pressure. In addition, teacher characteristics such as teaching style, emotional support, and how they manage SR could be examined to better understand the role educators play in shaping both the SAt and students.
The findings of this study have practical implications from a preventive point of view, offering insights into how fostering a supportive and inclusive SAt can reduce SAl and SR, promoting better academic outcomes and more school attendance in students. Therefore, it would be useful to promote, during initial teacher training, the maturation of instructional skills to foster the construction of a fair and equitable educational atmosphere in which students can perceive themselves as part of the educational process and the classroom. This would reduce the likelihood that the student may feel alienated from the teacher or what is being taught, and thus—according to our results—a lower risk of incurring SR situations. At the same time, it would be appropriate to structure educational activities within the school curriculum aimed at fostering a sense of belonging to the school and its importance in the student’s daily life. This could mitigate anxiety related to school situations.
Conceptualization, L.S.; Methodology, C.C.; Formal analysis, C.C.; Investigation, L.S., A.F., C.C., C.F.M. and P.F.; Data curation, L.S., A.F., C.C., C.F.M. and P.F.; Writing—original draft, L.S. and A.F.; Writing—review & editing, L.S. and P.F.; Visualization, A.F.; Supervision, P.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the University of Alicante [UA-2023-06-29-4] on 29 June 2023. This study was performed following the recommendations of the Ethical Code of the Italian Association of Psychology (AIP).
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study. For minors, parental or guardian consent was obtained from both parents or legal guardians before participation. Only students whose parents or guardians provided consent were included in the administration of the questionnaires. Participants who did not meet these requirements were not involved in the study.
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Footnotes
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Figure 1 Full mediation model. In blue, the dimensions of SAt and their direct effects on other variables; in green, the dimensions of SAl and their direct effects on other variables; in orange, the SR dimensions. Note: *** p ≤ 0.001, ** p ≤ 0.01, * p ≤ 0.05. The coefficients shown are standardized direct path coefficients. No insignificant paths were inserted.
Standardized path estimates (β), SEs, and 95% CIs. In blue, the direct effects of SAt on SAl; in green, direct effects of SAl on SR; in orange, the direct and indirect effects of SAt and SAl on SR.
| β | SE | Lower Bound (BC) | Upperbound (BC) | p | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Direct effects | ||||||
| SAt | Interpersonal Justice → Learning Alienation | −0.31 | 0.06 | −0.29 | −0.07 | ≤0.001 |
| Educational Climate → Teacher Alienation | 0.25 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.28 | ≤0.05 | |
| Interpersonal Justice → Teacher Alienation | −0.46 | 0.06 | −0.40 | −0.17 | ≤0.001 | |
| Sense of Belonging → Teacher Alienation | −0.23 | 0.05 | −0.23 | −0.01 | ≤0.05 | |
| Educational Climate → Classmate Alienation | −0.16 | 0.07 | −0.40 | −0.09 | ≤0.01 | |
| Student–Teacher Relations → Classmate Alienation | −0.10 | 0.05 | −0.24 | −0.03 | ≤0.05 | |
| Student Relations → Classmate Alienation | 0.14 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 0.33 | ≤0.001 | |
| Sense of Belonging → Classmate Alienation | 0.20 | 0.06 | 0.15 | 0.43 | ≤0.001 | |
| SAt | Educational Climate → Anxious Anticipation | 0.28 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.31 | ≤0.01 |
| Interpersonal Justice → Anxious Anticipation | 0.27 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.30 | ≤0.01 | |
| Sense of Belonging → Anxious Anticipation | −0.44 | 0.05 | −0.36 | −0.14 | ≤0.001 | |
| Interpersonal Justice → Difficult Transition | 0.19 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.35 | ≤0.05 | |
| Educational Climate → Interpersonal Discomfort | 0.51 | 0.07 | 0.14 | 0.42 | ≤0.001 | |
| Sense of Belonging → Interpersonal Discomfort | −0.61 | 0.05 | −0.42 | −0.20 | ≤0.001 | |
| SAl | Learning Alienation → Difficult Transition | 0.40 | 0.09 | 0.43 | 0.82 | ≤0.001 |
| Teacher Alienation → Anxious Anticipation | 0.60 | 0.08 | 0.48 | 0.83 | ≤0.001 | |
| Teacher Alienation → Difficult Transition | 0.35 | 0.12 | 0.30 | 0.79 | ≤0.001 | |
| Teacher Alienation → School Avoidance | 0.50 | 0.06 | 0.17 | 0.42 | ≤0.001 | |
| SAt | Indirect effects via Learning Alienation | |||||
| Interpersonal Justice → Difficult Transition | −0.12 | 0.04 | −0.20 | −0.04 | ≤0.01 | |
| Sense of Belonging → Difficult Transition | −0.14 | 0.04 | −0.16 | −0.01 | ≤0.05 | |
| SAt | Indirect effects via Teacher Alienation | |||||
| Educational Climate → Anxious Anticipation | 0.15 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.20 | ≤0.05 | |
| Interpersonal Justice → Anxious Anticipation | −0.28 | 0.04 | −0.29 | −0.09 | ≤0.001 | |
| Interpersonal Justice → Difficult Transition | −0.16 | 0.05 | −0.27 | −0.06 | ≤0.01 | |
| Interpersonal Justice → Interpersonal Discomfort | −0.19 | 0.03 | −0.19 | −0.04 | ≤0.01 | |
| Interpersonal Justice → School Avoidance | −0.23 | 0.02 | −0.13 | −0.04 | ≤0.001 | |
| Sense of Belonging → Anxious Anticipation | −0.14 | −04 | −0.16 | −0.01 | ≤0.05 | |
| Sense of Belonging → Interpersonal Discomfort | −0.10 | 0.02 | −0.09 | −0.00 | ≤0.05 |
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; Fumia Angelo 2
; Caparello Concettina 3 ; Meduri, Carmelo Francesco 2
; Pina, Filippello 1 1 Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, 98124 Messina, Italy; [email protected] (L.S.); [email protected] (P.F.)
2 Department of Health Sciences, University Magna Graecia of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; [email protected]
3 Department of Classical, Linguistic and Educational Studies, University Kore of Enna, 94100 Enna, Italy; [email protected]