The influence of physical activity on the mental health of high school students: the chain mediating effects of social support and self-esteem

Abstract

Mental health issues among high school students have become increasingly prominent. While physical activity is recognized for its ability to reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression, the underlying psychological mechanisms of this effect remain unclear. Social support and self-esteem, as key psychological resources, may mediate the relationship between physical activity and mental health. The aim of this research is to investigate the connection between physical activity and mental health among high school students with an emphasis on the mediating roles of social support and self-esteem. A random sample of 484 high school students (309 males and 175 females) was chosen to take part in an online survey. The survey utilized the PARS-3, the MSPSS, the RSES, the Adolescent Self-Rating Scale (Depression Dimension), and the SWLS. SPSS Statistics 26 with the PROCESS 4.0 macro was used to examine the chain mediation model. Physical activity was significantly positively correlated with life satisfaction and significantly negatively correlated with depression. Physical activity indirectly influenced mental health through social support or self-esteem, and this effect was further enhanced through the chain mediating roles of both factors (life satisfaction: β = 0.0023, SE = 0.0011, 95% CI [0.0002, 0.0047]; depression: β = − 0.0022, SE = 0.0005, 95% CI [− 0.0032, − 0.0014]). The findings emphasize the critical role of social support and self-esteem in the connection between physical activity and mental health. Improving social support and self-esteem can effectively increase the positive impact of physical activity. The findings provide valuable insights for designing more effective mental health interventions for high school students.

Introduction

With the rapid progress of society, secondary school students face heavy academic workloads as well as intense competition for talent and pressure related to further education. These challenges increase their vulnerability to mental health issues¹. Approximately 14% of adolescents worldwide experience mental disorders². In China, mental health issues are particularly prominent among high school students, with surveys indicating that as many as 40% of high school students exhibit symptoms of depression³. These data underscore the urgent need to address and support the mental health of high school students. Mental health is a critical factor that influences the holistic development of high school students and is strongly linked to their social skills and overall well-being². Negative mental health may result in serious outcomes, including truancy, self-harm, and even suicide⁴. In contrast, positive mental health helps to alleviate academic stress and reduces the risk of suicide⁵. Hence, it is important to systematically assess the mental health of high school students and to explore its components to improve adolescents’ mental health.

This study adopts the dual-factor model of mental health and evaluates both positive and negative dimensions of high school students’ mental health⁶. Specifically, positive mental health is evaluated through life satisfaction, whereas negative mental health is assessed through depression levels. The dual-factor model posits that mental health involves not only a lack of negative symptoms but also the presence of positive psychological states and that both are equally crucial⁶. Furthermore, this study draws on the biopsychosocial model⁷, which emphasizes that an individual’s mental health results from the dynamic interaction of biological, psychological, and social environmental factors. Within this framework, physical activity is a form of positive physical behavior that not only alleviates symptoms of depression by improving physiological functions and regulating neurotransmitters⁸ but also enhances individuals’ perceived social support and self-esteem by fostering social interaction and experiences of achievement. These combined effects contribute to an overall improvement of mental health^9,10. Furthermore, the sociometer theory¹¹ suggests that self-esteem represents individuals’ internal perception of their level of social acceptance. A strong perception of social support increases individuals’ self-worth and belongingness, which subsequently contributes to greater life satisfaction and fewer psychological problems¹². Therefore, social support and self-esteem are key determinants of mental health, and their interaction plays a crucial role in shaping mental health. The innovation of this study is that it presents the first systematic exploration of how social support and self-esteem act as chain mediators between physical activity and mental health. Although previous studies have examined the direct effect of physical activity on mental health or single mediation effects, few studies have investigated the combined mediating role of social support and self-esteem in this process. By constructing a chain mediation model, this study offers a thorough examination of how physical activity enhances social support, which in turn increases self-esteem, ultimately leading to improvements in mental health. This analysis fills a gap in the current literature and uniquely advances the understanding of how social support and self-esteem mediate the relationship between physical activity and mental health. It also offers new perspectives and valuable insights for both theoretical development and practical applications in this field.

Physical activity and mental health

Physical activity refers to any movement of the body driven by skeletal muscles that demands vigorous consumption. This includes activities such as swimming, running, and gymnastics¹³. The literature has broadly validated the significant association between physical activity and mental health¹⁴. For example, Molcho et al.¹⁵ reported that engaging in physical activity promotes positive mental health and significantly reduces the occurrence of negative psychological issues. The role of physical activity in mental health can be explained through various mechanisms, primarily physiological, cognitive, and emotional regulation pathways. First, physical activity improves brain function and increases levels of dopamine and serotonin, which increase individuals’ sense of happiness and satisfaction and effectively relieve depression^8,16. In addition, physical activity helps to improve attention, enabling individuals to shift their focus away from stressors or negative emotions¹⁷. This cognitive diversion contributes to stress reduction and the improvement of emotional states. Sánchez-Núñez et al.¹⁸ conducted research on undergraduates and showed that physical activity, as an effective method of emotional regulation, can significantly improve overall mental health. Although previous studies have highlighted the advantages of physical activity for mental health, further exploration is needed to understand how physical activity influences both positive and negative aspects of mental health.

The mediating role of social support

In the pathway that links physical activity to mental health, social support is considered a crucial mediating variable. Social support encompasses the assistance individuals receive through their social interactions and interpersonal relationships^19,20. Research has established a strong link between social support and mental health²¹. According to the stress-buffering model²², social support can mitigate negative emotional responses when individuals are confronted with stressors, thereby alleviating psychological distress, including symptoms of depression and anxiety²³. Positive psychology also emphasizes that positive interpersonal relationships and social networks can effectively improve individual well-being^24,25. Furthermore, social support contributes to increased happiness by fulfilling individuals’ needs for belonging and love²⁶. Moreover, social support is essential for alleviating symptoms of depression²⁷. Gabriella et al.²⁸ reported that support from friends not only helps to prevent depression in adolescents but also alleviates feelings of loneliness.

Further research has revealed a notable positive relationship between physical activity and social support⁹. Participating in physical activity increases social interaction, improves social skills, and strengthens individuals’ sense of social support^29,30. Shu et al.³¹ noted that participating in physical activity helps college students expand their social networks and access more social resources, thereby increasing their sense of social support. Physical activity not only provides individuals with emotional support and positive experiences but also effectively reduces negative emotions such as depression^19,32. Although previous research has confirmed the positive impact of physical activity on social support, there is a lack of in-depth studies that examine whether physical activity indirectly impacts mental health through social support. Hence, the aim of this study is to explore how social support mediates the association between physical activity and mental health, particularly with regard to its different roles in the positive and negative dimensions of mental health.

The mediating role of self-esteem

In the process by which physical activity affects mental health, self-esteem represents a critical underlying mechanism. Self-esteem reflects the way individuals perceive and evaluate their own value and serves as a vital component of self-concept. It motivates individual behavior and is closely linked to future life outcomes^33,34. High levels of self-esteem can significantly increase positive indicators of mental health, including life satisfaction and well-being. Conversely, low self-esteem is closely tied to negative aspects of mental health such as incorporating depression and self-harm^35,36. The cognitive vulnerability model proposes that poor self-esteem is likely to trigger depressive emotions³⁷, whereas high levels of self-esteem contribute to improved life satisfaction^38,39. Son et al.⁴⁰ conducted a longitudinal study that showed that poor self-esteem in childhood is a reliable determinant of depression in adolescence. These findings clearly indicate that self-esteem not only affects individuals’ short-term psychological states but also has a profound effect on long-term mental health.

Research has highlighted a robust positive connection between physical activity and self-esteem⁴¹. The exercise and self-esteem model suggests that participating in physical activity increases individuals’ physical self-efficacy, which in turn improves their overall self-esteem⁴². Tikac et al.⁴³ reported that steady engagement in physical activity is an effective means of increasing self-esteem. Additionally, previous findings have revealed that self-esteem plays an intermediary role in linking physical activity to mental health and that active participation in physical activity increases self-esteem, which in turn is closely associated with greater overall well-being⁴⁴. Wei et al.¹⁰ showed that physical activity enhanced self-esteem in college students by improving perceived endurance, thereby effectively reducing depression levels. These findings suggest that self-esteem plays an intermediary role in the link between physical activity and mental health. Although previous research has established the mediating role of self-esteem in the connection between physical activity and mental health, most studies have focused on university students. Fewer studies have examined high school students, a group characterized by greater emotional fluctuations and incomplete psychological development. Therefore, the aim of this study is to explore how self-esteem mediates the relationship between physical activity and mental health and how it can increase life satisfaction and reduce symptoms of depression in high school students.

The chain mediating role of social support and self-esteem

Considering the strong link between social support and self-esteem, exploring their sequential mediating roles in the link between physical activity and mental health may provide deeper insights into the psychological processes by which physical activity exerts positive effects. Previous research shows that social support is strongly linked to higher self-esteem⁴⁵. According to sociometer theory¹¹, self-esteem reflects the way individuals perceive their social acceptance. Social support strengthens individuals’ self-worth by providing recognition and emotional support, thereby increasing self-esteem⁴⁵. Social support also enhances the sense of self-worth and helps individuals maintain or improve their self-esteem when facing adverse events. This is particularly true for adolescents because increased social support fosters the growth of higher levels of self-esteem¹². For example, Choi et al.⁴⁶ conducted a longitudinal investigation of Korean adolescents and reported that support from teachers could predict higher self-esteem in students. Additionally, research has indicated that social support improves self-esteem directly through emotional support and indirectly through neurophysiological mechanisms, such as the role of the hippocampus⁴⁷.

Active participation in physical activity enhances individuals’ perception of social support⁴⁸. During physical activity, individuals can receive respect, support, and understanding from others. These emotional experiences fulfill psychological needs, leading to a direct perception of higher levels of social support⁴⁹. This support not only helps to improve self-esteem but also increases well-being⁵⁰ and alleviates negative mental health issues such as depression⁵¹. Zhang et al.⁵² revealed that self-esteem significantly influences psychological health indicators such as subjective well-being, anxiety, and depression. Although previous research has validated the independent mediating roles of social support and self-esteem separately, there are insufficient systematic, verified findings on their integrated chain mediation pathway, particularly among high school students. Therefore, this study incorporates both variables into a single model with the aim of revealing the continuous mechanism by which physical activity influences adolescents’ positive and negative mental health.

The present study

Although previous research has explored the relationship between physical activity and mental health, no study to date has explicitly investigated whether physical activity improves mental health by first strengthening social support, which subsequently strengthens self-esteem. To fill this research gap, the present research adopts a chain mediation framework to explore how physical activity affects mental health through the sequential mediating effects of social support and self-esteem. This perspective aims to provide a clearer picture of the psychological mechanisms of this effect. Drawing on the biopsychosocial model and sociometer theory, this study develops an integrative conceptual model (see Fig. 1). The following research hypotheses are proposed:

Fig. 1 [Images not available. See PDF.]

Research model.

H1a

Physical activity is positively correlated with life satisfaction.

H1b

Physical activity is negatively correlated with depression.

H2

Social support mediates the connection between physical activity and mental health.

H3

Self-esteem mediates the connection between physical activity and mental health.

H4

Social support and self-esteem jointly exert a chained mediating influence within the link between physical activity and mental health.

Research methods

Sample and data collection procedure

To increase the representativeness of the sample and the applicability of the results, a random sampling method was used to distribute and collect questionnaires. Wenjuanxing (https://www.wjx.cn/) was employed as the data collection method, and the survey participants were students from three high schools in China. First, the research team coordinated with the classroom teachers, who briefed the students during class on the purpose and importance of the survey. On the basis of this communication, teachers randomly invited a subset of students from each class to take part in the survey and distributed the questionnaire link via the class WeChat groups. Although efforts were made to introduce randomness, the administration of the sampling process by teachers may have introduced a degree of selection bias. To mitigate potential conformity or response bias arising from teacher involvement, the survey instructions explicitly emphasized anonymity and voluntary participation, thereby increasing the authenticity and representativeness of the data. Among the 487 questionnaires collected, 484 were deemed valid after incomplete or invalid entries were removed, resulting in an effective response rate of 99.38% (Table 1). To minimize potential ceiling and floor effects that could bias the analysis, questionnaires were deemed invalid if they met either of the following criteria: (1) more than 20% of the items were omitted or (2) more than 80% of the items exhibited repeated response patterns⁵³. All research procedures followed the ethical principles for human participants outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and were reviewed and accepted by the Science and Technology Ethics Committee of Huanghuai University (ethical approval number 202410250005). Before completing the questionnaire, all participants, including high school students whose legal guardians provided informed consent, provided their own informed consent. No psychological or physical harm was caused to the students, and legal rights of all participants were fully protected.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the sample.

		Quantity	Percentage (%)	Covariate analysis (life satisfaction/depression)
Gender	Male	309	63.8	0.418/0.064
	Female	175	36.2
Grade	Grade 10	201	41.5	0.002/0.035
	Grade 11	205	42.4
	Grade 12	78	16.1
Registered residence	Village	378	78.1	< 0.001/ < 0.001
	Town	106	21.9
Only child	Yes	166	34.3	0.029/0.192
	No	318	65.7

Measurement tools

The scales employed in this study were previously verified and demonstrated strong reliability and validity among Chinese high school students. To maintain alignment with the original scales, the content and structure of the items were unchanged.

Physical activity

In this study, the revised Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS-3) by Liu et al.⁵⁴ was used to measure physical activity levels. The scale comprises three items that measure the intensity, duration, and frequency of physical activity on a 5-point Likert scale. The activity score = intensity score × (duration score-1) × frequency score. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.726, and the KMO value was 0.683.

Social support

This study utilized the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) created by Zimet et al.⁵⁵ to assess high school students’ perceived level of social support⁵⁶. The scale comprises 12 questions that measure three dimensions, family support, friend support, and support from others, on a 7-point Likert scale. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.857, and the KMO value was 0.930.

Self-esteem

This study employed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) created by Rosenberg⁵⁷, to measure high school students’ levels of self-worth and self-acceptance⁵⁸. The scale has 10 items and employs a 4-point Likert scale. Five items are scored positively, while the other five are reverse-scored. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.709. The KMO value was 0.841, suggesting that the scale demonstrated good structural validity.

Depression

This study utilized the depression dimension of the Youth Self Report (YSR) created by Achenbach and Rescorla⁵⁹ to measure negative mental health⁶⁰. This dimension includes 16 items rated on a 3-point scale. The YSR scale was chosen because it has strong reliability and validity in adolescent populations and has been validated in multiple studies for its effectiveness in assessing depressive symptoms in adolescents⁶⁰. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.899. The KMO value was 0.963, indicating that the scale demonstrated good structural validity and that it met the criteria for conducting factor analysis. The robustness of the YSR scale in adolescent mental health assessments makes it an appropriate tool for evaluating depression in this study.

Life satisfaction

This study utilized the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) created by Diener et al.⁶¹ to measure personal life satisfaction⁶². The scale comprises 5 items and employs a 7-point Likert scale. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.716, and the KMO value was 0.792.

Data analysis

SPSS 26 was used for data analysis. A chain mediation analysis was conducted using the PROCESS 4.0 macro to examine how physical activity impacts mental health via social support and self-esteem. Bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples was used in the analysis, thereby improving the robustness of the results. To ensure methodological rigor, tests for normal distribution and common method bias were conducted before proceeding with multivariate analysis.

Results

To verify that the data satisfied the assumptions of multivariate analysis, skewness and kurtosis were used to check normality. As per Kline⁶³, skewness values with an absolute magnitude less than 3 and kurtosis values less than 10 are deemed acceptable. Hence, the primary variables followed a normal distribution (Table 2).

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the variables.

	N	M ± SD	MIN	MAX	SK	Kur
Physical activity	484	27.14 ± 15.06	0.00	80.00	0.50	0.87
Social support	484	5.04 ± 1.16	1.67	6.83	-1.22	0.51
Self-esteem	484	3.37 ± 0.42	1.90	4.00	-1.13	1.03
Life satisfaction	484	4.99 ± 1.24	1.40	7.00	-0.76	-0.21
Depression	484	0.52 ± 0.41	0.00	1.75	1.23	0.34

Common variance bias test

Harman’s single-factor test was used to check for common method bias. Exploratory factor analysis revealed 7 factors with eigenvalues above 1. The first factor explained 31.979% of the variance, which was below the 40% threshold⁶⁴. This indicates that common method bias does not pose a major issue in this research. To further reduce potential bias introduced by self-reported data, several measures were implemented to improve the reliability of the data. First, by ensuring anonymity and participant confidentiality, the influence of social desirability effects on responses was minimized. Second, standardized scales were used for data collection to maintain the clarity and consistency of the questionnaire items, thereby reducing the interference of individual subjective evaluations on the results. Additionally, the research design accounted for the diversity of data collection methods to increase the robustness of the findings.

Correlation analysis

The correlation analysis revealed significant associations among physical activity, social support, self-esteem, life satisfaction, and depression (see Table 3).

Table 3. Pearson correlation.

	Physical activity	Social support	Self-esteem	Life satisfaction	Depression
Physical activity	1
Social support	0.438***	1
Self-esteem	0.465***	0.713***	1
Life satisfaction	0.367***	0.679***	0.559***	1
Depression	− 0.412***	− 0.765***	− 0.708***	− 0.571***	1

***p < 0.001.

Mediation analysis

First, Model 6 from Hayes’ IBM SPSS macro program PROCESS with all variables standardized was used, to examine the chain mediating effect. The selection of control variables was based on the results of a differential analysis that revealed significant differences in life satisfaction based on grade level, household registration, and whether the participant was an only child. Therefore, these variables were accounted for in the analysis. The outcomes in Table 4 indicate that the direct predictive effect of physical activity on life satisfaction was not significant (β = 0.0059, t = 1.9112, p = 0.0566).

Table 4. Hierarchical regression analysis of chain mediation effects.

	Predictor variable	R	R2	F	β	SE	t
Social support	Physical activity	0.4620	0.2134	32.4955***	0.0330	0.0031	10.4988***
	Grade				− 0.0687	0.0661	− 1.0404
	Registered residence				− 0.3855	0.1181	− 3.2648**
	Only child				0.0185	0.1025	0.1806
Self-esteem	Physical activity	0.7419	0.5504	117.0552***	0.0053	0.0010	5.5178***
	Social support				0.2219	0.0126	17.6245***
	Grade				− 0.0234	0.0182	− 1.2851
	Registered residence				− 0.1131	0.0329	− 3.4378***
	Only child				− 0.0193	0.0282	− 0.6846
Life satisfaction	Physical activity	0.7019	0.4926	77.1904***	0.0059	0.0031	1.9112
	Social support				0.5883	0.0504	11.6772***
	Self-esteem				0.3178	0.1425	2.2308*
	Grade				− 0.1154	0.0569	− 2.0279*
	Registered residence				− 0.2244	0.1037	− 2.1628*
	Only child				0.1885	0.0880	2.1422*

***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

The direct mediation effect results show that physical activity did not have a significant direct effect on life satisfaction (β = 0.0059, SE = 0.0031, 95% CI [− 0.0002, 0.0120]), indicating that its effect was fully mediated through the roles of social support and self-esteem (Table 5). The mediation effect operated through three indirect pathways: the indirect pathway from physical activity through social support to life satisfaction was the most significant and accounted for 82.91% of the total indirect effect (β = 0.0194, SE = 0.0028, 95% CI [0.0144, 0.0253]). This finding indicates that physical activity significantly increased life satisfaction by increasing social support, and its impact was dominant among all the pathways. In contrast, the indirect pathway from physical activity through self-esteem to life satisfaction accounted for 7.26% of the total indirect effect (β = 0.0017, SE = 0.0009, 95% CI [0.0001, 0.0036]). Although the effect size was relatively small, it shows a significant impact, suggesting that the role of self-esteem in life satisfaction should not be overlooked. The pathway in which physical activity influenced life satisfaction through social support and self-esteem accounted for 9.83% of the total effect (β = 0.0023, SE = 0.0011, 95% CI [0.0002, 0.0047]), which further indicates that the chain mediation had a significant effect on life satisfaction (Table 5).

Table 5. Chain mediation analysis predicting life satisfaction (bootstrap method).

		Efficiency value	Boot SE	Bootstrap 95% CI		Percentage
				LLCI	ULCI
Direct effect	Physical activity to life satisfaction	0.0059	0.0031	− 0.0002	0.0120
Total indirect effect	Physical activity to life satisfaction	0.0234	0.0030	0.0179	0.0297	100%
Indirect effect	Physical activity via social support to life satisfaction	0.0194	0.0028	0.0144	0.0253	82.91%
	Physical activity via self-esteem to life satisfaction	0.0017	0.0009	0.0001	0.0036	7.26%
	Physical activity via social support and self-esteem to life satisfaction	0.0023	0.0011	0.0002	0.0047	9.83%

Next, the same method was used to explore the chain mediating roles in the connection between physical activity and depression. The selection of control variables was based on the results of a differential analysis that revealed significant differences in depression based on grade level and household registration. Therefore, these variables were accounted for in the analysis. The outcomes in Table 6 indicate that the direct predictive effect of physical activity on depression was not significant (β = − 0.0010, t = − 1.1746, p = 0.2407).

Table 6. Hierarchical regression analysis of chain mediation effects.

	Predictor variable	R	R2	F	β	SE	t
Social support	Physical activity	0.4619	0.2134	43.4040***	0.0330	0.0031	10.5165***
	Grade				− 0.0683	0.0660	− 1.0350
	Registered residence				− 0.3907	0.1144	− 3.4156***
Self-esteem	Physical activity	0.7416	0.5500	146.3642***	0.0053	0.0010	5.5677***
	Social support				0.2219	0.0126	17.6293***
	Grade				− 0.0239	0.0182	− 1.3147
	Registered residence				− 0.1077	0.0319	− 3.3740***
Depression	Physical activity	0.8011	0.6418	171.2850***	− 0.0010	0.0008	− 1.1746
	Social support				− 0.1819	0.0138	− 13.1451***
	Self-esteem				− 0.2967	0.0391	− 7.5839***
	Grade				0.0092	0.0156	0.5888
	Registered residence				0.0368	0.0277	1.3302

The results of the direct mediation effect show that the direct effect of physical activity on depression was not significant (β = − 0.0010, SE = 0.0008, 95% CI [− 0.0027, 0.0007]), suggesting that its effect was fully mediated through the roles of social support and self-esteem (Table 7). The mediation effect operated through three indirect pathways. The first path, in which physical activity influenced depression through social support, accounted for 61.22% of the total effect (β = − 0.0060, SE = 0.0009, 95% CI [− 0.0079, − 0.0043]). The effect size of this path was large, indicating that physical activity significantly reduced depressive symptoms by increasing social support, making it the primary mediating path. The second path, where physical activity affected depression through self-esteem, accounted for 16.33% of the total effect (β = − 0.0016, SE = 0.0004, 95% CI [− 0.0024, − 0.0009]). Although the effect was small, it highlights the important role of self-esteem in alleviating depression. The third path, involving the influence of physical activity on depression through social support and self-esteem in sequence, accounted for 22.45% of the total effect (β = − 0.0022, SE = 0.0005, 95% CI [− 0.0032, − 0.0014]). This finding indicates that the chain mediating effect plays a key role in reducing depressive symptoms.

Table 7. Chain mediation analysis predicting depression (bootstrap method).

		Efficiency value	Boot SE	Bootstrap 95% CI		Percentage
				LLCI	ULCI
Direct effect	Physical activity to depression	− 0.0010	0.0008	− 0.0027	0.0007
Total indirect effect	Physical activity to depression	− 0.0098	0.0011	− 0.0120	− 0.0076	100%
Indirect effect	Physical activity via social support to depression	− 0.0060	0.0009	− 0.0079	− 0.0043	61.22%
	Physical activity via self-esteem to depression	− 0.0016	0.0004	− 0.0024	− 0.0009	16.33%
	Physical activity via social support and self-esteem to depression	− 0.0022	0.0005	− 0.0032	− 0.0014	22.45%

Discussion

Physical activity is strongly linked to increased life satisfaction and decreased depression, confirming H1a and H1b. This finding aligns with the findings of Molcho et al.¹⁵, who confirmed that increased physical activity is linked to improved positive mental health indicators and fewer mental health problems among adolescents. Furthermore, the findings of this study are in agreement with those of Zheng et al.¹⁹, indicating that physical activity improves mental health by regulating serotonin levels and promoting the secretion of neurotransmitters such as endorphins, leading to adaptive changes in brain structure. This finding aligns with the physiological mechanisms proposed by Zheng et al.¹⁹ and further validates the physiological role of physical activity in improving mental health. This physiological mechanism is consistent with related studies in Western contexts. However, in the Chinese cultural context, the social interaction and collectivism inherent in physical activity may further increase its effects on mental health. From a psychological perspective, physical activity serves as an effective means of emotional expression and allows individuals to release accumulated negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, or feelings of depression during exercise¹⁸. In addition, strength training helps to alleviate symptoms of depression and increases self-efficacy, while practices such as yoga improve stress mitigation and emotional control by regulating autonomic nervous system balance and fostering mental health⁶⁵. China’s educational and social context has a unique influence on the connection between physical activity and mental health. The Chinese education system emphasizes collectivism, and physical activity is often not only a means of individual exercise but also a way to promote collective cooperation and social interaction. This characteristic of collective participation in physical activity may amplify its role in alleviating depressive symptoms and improving life satisfaction, particularly by boosting the mental well-being of adolescents.

Social support mediates the link between physical activity and mental health. That is, increased physical activity increases individuals’ levels of social support, which subsequently increases life satisfaction and reduces depression levels, confirming H2. This finding aligns with the findings of Zheng et al.¹⁹, who reported that physical activity increases social support by promoting social interaction, thereby assisting individuals in managing stress and improving their mental well-being. This study further supports this view and emphasizes the contribution of physical activity to alleviating negative emotions and promoting mental health by strengthening social support. Strong social support serves as a reliable predictor of positive mental health in adolescents, whereas diminished social support has been consistently related to elevated levels of depression⁶⁶. Physical activity provides individuals with opportunities to build reciprocal relationships and increases social experiences and a sense of belonging, which in turn increases emotional and psychological support⁹. According to social support theory, increased social support plays a dual role by promoting mental health and effectively buffering the harmful effects of stress, which provides a stable foundation for mental health²⁹. Moreover, increased team interactions during physical activity increase social support, which subsequently increases well-being and improves mental health through various direct and indirect mechanisms⁶⁷. Therefore, by strengthening social support, physical activity provides a solid foundation for maintaining good mental health. In the Chinese cultural context, the social support provided by physical activity may have a unique influence. The Chinese education system emphasizes collectivism, and students obtain social support through collective activities. This is particularly evident in physical activity. Unlike Western individualistic cultures, Chinese students rely on collective interactions to establish social connections and increase self-esteem, which in turn strengthens the impact of physical activity on improved mental health. Therefore, physical activity contributes to better physical health and strengthens social support through collective activities, which provides more resources for mental health.

Self-esteem mediates the relationship between physical activity and mental health; that is, physical activity indirectly improves students’ mental health by increasing their self-esteem, thereby confirming H3. These results corroborate the findings of Wei et al.¹⁰, who reported that physical activity improves mental health and alleviates depressive symptoms by increasing self-esteem. This study further validates this finding and underscores the role of physical activity in boosting self-esteem and alleviating negative emotions. In addition, organized physical activity can increase self-esteem and life satisfaction and can effectively decrease the probability of experiencing depression^68,69. Research has revealed that adolescents who engage in team sports exhibit higher levels of self-esteem. and greater life satisfaction than those who are not involved in sports⁶⁸. According to self-concept theory⁷⁰, adolescents who participate in physical activity can increase their athletic ability and improve their self-concept in relation to their physical appearance, thereby increasing their self-esteem. People with elevated self-esteem tend to employ more effective coping strategies and experience reduced stress and perceived threats, which ultimately promotes mental health⁷¹. In summary, physical activity is crucial for enhancing adolescents’ mental health. By increasing self-esteem, physical activity improves individuals’ life satisfaction while significantly reducing the risk of depression, providing an effective pathway for improving mental health.

Social support and self-esteem function as chain mediators in the connection between physical activity and mental health (life satisfaction and depression). That is, greater participation in physical activity increases individuals’ social support, improves their self-esteem, and consequently improves their mental health, confirming H4. This result aligns with the findings of Poudel et al.⁵⁰, who demonstrated that social support can further increase mental health by increasing self-esteem. According to the sociometer theory of self-esteem¹¹, self-esteem is a subjective experience of social acceptance and belonging. When high school students receive positive feedback from peers, teachers, or family members during physical activity, they are inclined to perceive stronger social support, which further improves their social value and self-evaluation⁴⁵. This study confirms the chain mediating role of social support and self-esteem in linking physical activity and mental health, supporting the conceptual model of sports and mental health. This model proposes that physical activity enhances mental health through psychosocial mechanisms. Physical activity not only provides individuals with greater social support but also increases self-esteem by fostering a sense of competence and accomplishment during exercise, thereby promoting mental health⁷². Control-value theory⁷³ also asserts that life satisfaction and emotional states depend on individuals’ perceptions of environmental controllability and subjective value. Physical activity increases students’ sense of control over their physical condition and social interactions, while simultaneously increasing their perceived social support^31,50. These effects result in improved self-esteem and better mental health. Empirical studies have also demonstrated that people who engage regularly in physical activity often have broader social networks, which allows them to receive more material, emotional, and psychological support⁹. In particular, social support provided by family contributes significantly to enhancing students’ self-esteem⁷⁴. Students with high self-esteem often report fewer mental health problems and exhibit greater life satisfaction^75,76. Physical activity increases physical fitness and effectively improves mental health by increasing social support and self-esteem. It is essential for maintaining good mental health, which provides both theoretical and empirical evidence for the use of physical activity as a mental health intervention strategy. In the Chinese cultural context, physical activity increases social support and self-esteem through collective interactions and therefore has a more significant impact on mental health. The Chinese education system emphasizes collectivism, and physical activity is not only a means of individual exercise but also an important platform for fostering social connections. Particularly in team sports, adolescents increase their sense of belonging through collective activities, which further elevates their self-esteem. This cultural context emphasizes the ability of physical activity to alleviate depression and improve life satisfaction. Moreover, the school and family environments in China further strengthen the role of physical activity in promoting mental health.

This study showed that the effects of physical activity on both depression and life satisfaction were fully mediated by social support and self-esteem, and the direct paths were nonsignificant. This result suggests that physical activity does not directly increase individuals’ mental health or subjective well-being, but rather exerts its influence by simultaneously activating external social resources and internal psychological resources. High school students are at a critical stage of psychological development and social adjustment. When they face stress or seek well-being, they tend to rely more heavily on key resources such as social support and self-esteem to maintain emotional stability and positive experiences⁷⁷. As a positive behavior characterized by delayed and cumulative effects, physical activity typically influences psychological outcomes through indirect and gradual pathways rather than through immediate effects⁷⁸. The chain mediation model constructed in this study integrates social support and self-esteem into a unified pathway, which forms an external-to-internal mechanism that transforms psychological resources. This structure increases the explanatory power and completeness of the model and effectively accounts for the total effect of physical activity, resulting in a nonsignificant direct path⁷⁹. The emergence of full mediation not only reflects the theoretical coherence of the variable selection and the rationality of the path structure, but also provides robust empirical support for the processes by which physical activity impacts mental health.

Research implications

This study provides three key theoretical contributions. First, it develops and confirms a chain mediation model in which physical activity affects mental health through the combined effects of social support and self-esteem. This model illustrates how external social resources and internal psychological resources interact to support adolescents’ mental well-being, expanding and offering a fresh perspective on the application of the biopsychosocial model in youth research. Future research could further explore how these psychological resources function across different cultural and social contexts, providing guidance for cross-cultural mental health interventions. Second, the findings highlight the central role of self-esteem in the mental health process. Self-esteem reflects individuals’ self-evaluation and perceived social acceptance and serves as a psychological bridge between interpersonal relationships and emotional outcomes. This finding aligns with self-esteem theory⁵⁷. However, in collectivist cultures, adolescents’ self-esteem is more strongly connected to social relationships and a sense of collective belonging. Future research could explore the multidimensional role of self-esteem in different cultural contexts. Third, by focusing on Chinese high school students, this study provides empirical support for the cultural relevance of the proposed mechanism and a theoretical foundation for designing localized mental health interventions for adolescents. The Chinese cultural context emphasizes collectivism, where physical activity increases social support through collective interactions and further promotes mental health. Future research should integrate Chinese cultural characteristics and explore how to implement localized mental health education that incorporates physical activity in school environments to increase adolescents’ social support and self-esteem.

From a practical standpoint, in addition to improving students’ physical fitness, physical activity is crucial for expanding interpersonal relationships and enhancing self-worth. These effects contribute to the effective alleviation of negative emotions such as anxiety and depression while strengthening resilience in the face of stress and challenges. Schools can organize a variety of sports clubs and competitive events to promote students’ engagement in group-based physical activity according to their interests, which can increase students’ opportunities to increase social interaction, obtain social support, and receive positive feedback. However, potential barriers to implementing this suggestion include limited resources and the diversity of students’ interests. For example, schools may face a lack of sports facilities, or students may have low willingness to participate in specific sports activities. For educators, physical education should go beyond technical skill instruction and focus on students’ emotional experiences and psychological development. Physical education teachers should create a supportive, inclusive, and motivating classroom atmosphere by incorporating cooperative activities, offering timely positive feedback, and recognizing students’ individual differences. Potential barriers to implementing this suggestion include insufficient awareness of mental health among teachers and a lack of training resources. Specifically, educators may lack training on how to effectively integrate emotional and psychological support into physical education classes. A potential facilitating factor is interdisciplinary collaboration between physical education teachers and mental health education providers, which can increase teachers’ sensitivity to students’ emotional needs. Additionally, homeroom and school counselors can integrate physical activity into mental health education programs (for example, by combining physical education with group counseling or emotional regulation training) to help students increase their self-awareness and develop stronger emotional coping skills. Challenges in implementing this suggestion may include insufficient allocation of school resources and insufficient awareness regarding the significance of mental health education. However, by integrating existing mental health curricula with physical activities, schools can minimize resource conflicts and promote a more comprehensive educational model. For parents, it is important to shift away from the traditional perception that physical exercise is optional and instead to actively support their children’s participation in physical activity. This includes providing appropriate sports equipment, helping to establish a balanced daily routine, and engaging in joint activities such as parent–child morning runs or family sports days. Barriers to parental support may include work schedules, a lack of time, and insufficient sports facilities. However, through collaboration between schools and families, parents can receive guidance on ways to motivate their children to participate in physical activity, thereby alleviating these obstacles. For education policymakers, it is essential to foster the integration of physical education and mental health education by explicitly recognizing, at the policy level, the role of physical activity in improving students’ mental health. Specific measures may include increasing the duration of physical education classes, employing dedicated professionals who are trained in both physical and psychological education, and establishing initiatives such as “campus mental health and sports days” to encourage collaboration between physical and mental health programs. Additionally, improving the infrastructure and availability of sports facilities and equipment is crucial to ensuring that students have adequate opportunities for daily exercise. Barriers to implementing these policies include a lack of funding and the uneven distribution of local educational resources. However, through interdepartmental collaboration and clear policy support, these issues can be overcome to create a better environment for students’ physical activity and mental health. Achieving the goal of one hour of physical activity on campus each day requires the development of a comprehensive support system in which multiple stakeholders collaboratively promote students’ mental health within a supportive, whole-environment framework.

In conclusion, this study provides a feasible theoretical and practical foundation for constructing a mental health intervention framework centered on physical activity and offers practical guidance for educational interventions that target the mental health of high school students. The study also underscores the importance of social support and self-esteem and advocates for the inclusion of well-structured physical activities and supportive social environments in educational interventions to effectively improve adolescents’ mental health.

Limitations and future research directions

This study has several limitations. First, a cross-sectional design was employed. While this approach reveals the associative pathways among variables, it limits the ability to draw causal inferences because data are collected at a single time point. Future research could adopt a longitudinal design to track changes in variables over time, which would allow for a more in-depth exploration of their causal relationships. For example, data can be collected periodically at multiple time points, and causal relationships can be analyzed by comparing changes at different time points. Additionally, future researchers could consider adopting experimental designs, particularly randomized controlled trials, to provide stronger control and validate causal inferences. Second, the participants in this study were high school students from China, and this relatively homogeneous sample may limit the generalizability of the outcomes. Future research should expand the scope of the sample to include student populations from diverse cultural backgrounds and educational levels to increase the generalizability and applicability of the findings. This would provide more robust theoretical support and empirical evidence for the use of physical activity as a cross-cultural mental health intervention. Additionally, the data in this study were primarily collected using self-report tools, which may have introduced social desirability bias. Future research could adopt multisource data collection methods, such as assessments from teachers, parents, and peers as well as physiological or behavioral data (e.g., heart rate and activity levels), to complement self-reported data. Furthermore, to reduce social desirability effects, future studies could consider using implicit measurement methods, such as behavioral observation or computerized questionnaires, to minimize response bias from participants, thereby increasing the objectivity of the data and the credibility of the results. Additionally, intervention programs aimed at improving social support could be an important direction for future research. For example, on the basis of the needs-supportive technique classification system proposed by Ahmadi et al.⁸⁰, future studies could design and test interventions aimed at increasing levels of social support and explore their effectiveness and feasibility across different groups. Through these measures, future research can overcome current limitations and provide more comprehensive theoretical and empirical support for effective mental health intervention strategies.

Conclusion

This study constructed and validated a model that incorporated a chain mediation structure to explore the mechanisms through which physical activity impacts mental health with a focus on life satisfaction and depression. The results indicated that social support and self-esteem served as significant sequential mediators in this pathway. Physical activity increased perceived social support, which in turn elevated self-esteem and ultimately contributed to improved mental health outcomes. These findings reveal the multiple pathways through which physical activity affects mental health and offer empirical evidence to support the extension of relevant theoretical models. At the theoretical level, this study integrates the biopsychosocial model and sociometer theory and highlights the critical roles of social resources and self-worth in adolescents’ mental health. Furthermore, this study deepens our understanding of how positive physical behaviors contribute to mental health. At the practical level, this study provides concrete guidance for school-based mental health initiatives and emphasizes the need to enrich physical activity programs, foster a supportive environment, and strengthen students’ sense of self-worth to enhance their psychological adaptability. While this study provides both theoretical and practical insights, it is not without limitations. These include the use of a cross-sectional design, dependence on self-report data, and a restricted sample scope. To improve causal inferences and improve the generalizability of the results, future research should adopt longitudinal approaches and draw on data from multiple sources.

Author contributions

Conceptualization: Huige Li, Fang Hao; Methodology: Huige Li; Formal analysis and investigation: Huige Li; Writing—original draft preparation: Huige Li; Writing—review and editing: Huige Li; Supervision: Huige Li. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Ministry of Education’s Industry-Academia Collaboration and Talent Cultivation Program: Construction of Practice Base for University-Enterprise Cooperation Based on Digital Intelligent Platform for Comprehensive Management of Sports and Health, Project approval number: 2408201756.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval and consent to participate

The researchers confirms that all research was performed in accordance with relevant guidelines/regulations applicable when human participants are involved (e.g., Declaration of Helsinki or similar). This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Huanghuai University, with ethical approval number: 202410250005. The participants received oral and written information and provided written informed consent before participating in the study.

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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