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This article, based on an analysis of the 2004 elections, argues that illiberal democracy in the Philippines rests on strong foundations. On one hand, bad government, armed men, and the mainstreaming of military activism and People Power have deepened the illiberal strain of political culture since the ouster of strongman Ferdinand Marcos in 1986. On the other hand, the reassertion of democratic nationalism by prominent institutions and public opinion, and new technologies and types of representation, have reinforced a democracy that rests on relatively solid footing even though it may often appear on the brink of collapse. Public religion illustrates the complexity of these issues. If one defines "liberal" as seeking to change the status quo, the Catholic Church has become one of the country's most liberal institutions because it has challenged a frequently abusive and kleptocratic state for secure elections and basic rights.
Introduction
In such an atmosphere of fraud, I feel so disheartened and disgusted.
- Faith-based American observer on the 2004 Philippine elections (Sy and Aravilla 2004).
There was so much violence ... and people seemed to accept the fact that people got killed.
- German observer (Sy and Aravilla 2004).
Even with the violence and the continuing problems, we still believe that the election was credible.
- Philippine National Police (Esguerra, 2004).
If we could have such elections in Afghanistan, it would be tremendous.
- Afghan observer (Philippine Star, 19 May 2004).
Who is right? Is the Philippines a democracy? This article argues yes, but only after accounting for the differences between democracy and liberalism and recognizing that democracy, while not ideal, has made considerable headway since the ouster of strongman Ferdinand Marcos. Since 1986 elections have again become the primary mechanism to determine who controls government, the fundamental characteristic of a democratic state.
Elections also reveal the values of the broader political culture. Using the 2004 polls as a window of analysis, the primary argument of this paper is that the growth of democracy has outpaced that of liberalism since 1986, an imbalance that has created illiberal democracy. Granted, a focus on elections may overlook groups that seek to bypass or leave the state, in particular Islamic separatists and non-government organizations (NGOs). Moreover, this study analyses the conduct more...