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The framework I will use encompasses learning at the individual, group, inter-group, and organizational levels. Learning occurs whenever errors are detected and corrected, or when a match between intentions and consequences is produced for the first time. There are at least two ways to correct errors. One is to change the behaviour (for example, reduce backbiting and bad-mouthing among individuals). This kind of correction requires only single-loop learning. The second way to correct errors is to change the underlying programme, or master programme, that leads individuals to bad-mouth others even when they say they do not intend to do so. This is double-loop learning [1]. If actions are changed without changing the master programmes individuals use to produce the actions, then the correction will either fail or will not persevere.
Theories of action
Master programmes can also be viewed as theories of action that inform actors of the strategies they should use to achieve their intended consequences. Theories of action are governed by a set of values that provide the framework for the action strategies chosen. Thus, human beings are designing beings. They create, store, and retrieve designs that advise them how to act if they are to achieve their intentions and act consistently with their governing values. These designs, or theories of action, are the key to understanding human action.
Early in our research, my colleagues and I learned that there were two types of theories of action. One was the theory that individuals espoused and that comprised their beliefs, attitudes, and values. The second was their theory-in-use -- the theory that they actually employed. We did not expect that individuals would customarily design and implement a theory-in-use that was significantly different from their espoused theory, nor did we expect them to be unaware of the inconsistency when the theories they espoused and used were different. Therefore, it was a major surprise -- given our view of human beings as designing organisms -- to find out that there are often fundamental, systematic mismatches between individuals' espoused and in-use designs. It was also a bit baffling to find that individuals develop designs to keep them unaware of the mismatch. And they do all this when the issues are embarrassing or threatening, the precise time when...