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I
The nature1 of European expansion and the relationships it created with other areas of the world remains a subject of intense debate.2 Less controversial is the idea that, whatever its results, this process was determined not simply by European actions, but by local conditions and responses, and the mutual adaptations that developed. Willis has labelled this the 'interactive emergence of European domination', a concept equally applicable to other fields as to his own of maritime Asia.3 It is often difficult, however, to put flesh on these theoretical bones due to the relative lack of non-European sources, compared to the large numbers of travel accounts and well-catalogued bureaucratic records that detail the European perspective on these encounters. This lack should not be exaggerated, of course: in the case of Morocco, for example, there are a number of accounts of journeys to Europe. As Matar has also argued, a greater sensitivity to different types of sources can be productive.4
Nevertheless, any new sources that illuminate these encounters are welcome. This article therefore presents an account of the 1706-8 embassy of the Moroccan merchant and diplomat Ahmad Qardanash, in the context of Anglo-Moroccan relations during the reign of Sultan Mawlay Isma[MODIFIER LETTER LEFT HALF RING]il (r. 1672-1727). It is thirty years since the absence of any study analysing the 'complex web of issues, schemes and personalities' related to this topic was first noted, and despite important work on some aspects, much remains to untangle.5 The Moroccans involved in this embassy saw co-operation with the English as a potentially beneficial strategy, and were prepared to invest considerable political capital in it. The English, however, failed to appreciate the position of their potential allies within Morocco's political system, consequently disappointing the Moroccans' hopes, and damaging their own cause. This prevented them overcoming the obstacles in Morocco, which, in comparison to other states of North Africa, made it relatively resistant to European influence.
This article is based on two main sources, the first from State Papers Foreign at the National Archives in London.6 Although these archives have long been recognized as an important source for Moroccan history, to my knowledge only two works have made brief use...