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ABSTRACT
ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Integrated coastal zone management, ICZM, beach management plans.
INTRODUCTION
Types, Sources, and Effects of Marine Litter
Marine and coastal litter can be defined as any item that appears on beaches, or at sea, as a result of human activity (MARINE CONSERVATION SOCIETY, 2004). In the UK, several methods are used to categorise and source coastal litter (e.g. see EARLL, WILLIAMS, and TUDOR, 2000; LEWIS, 2002 for details). Commonly, coastal litter is categorised according to material type (e.g., plastic, glass, sanitary, metal) and assigned to four main sources: beach visitors, fishing debris, sewage-related debris (SRD), and shipping waste (including waste from recreational craft; e.g., MARINE CONSERVATION SOCIETY, 2004). Other land-based sources, namely fly tipping (illegal dumping of waste products) and street runoff, can also contribute to coastal litter.
The effects of marine litter on wildlife are recognised around the world and are well documented in the literature (e.g., see DERRAIK, 2002). ROBARDS, PIATT, and WOHL (1995) and WALKER et al. (1997) have documented the dangers to marine mammals and birds caused by entanglement in, and ingestion of, marine litter. Larger ecosystem effects have also been documented. Accumulations of litter on the sea floor can damage the substratum by abrasion and smother the ecosystern, preventing light and nutrients from reaching the fauna and potentially affecting the productivity of the benthos (LAIST, 1987). Litter items can provide shelter and food for migrating organisms, the means for colonisation, or both, potentially resulting in a detrimental effect on native communities (BARNES, 2002; LAIST, 1987; MINCHIN, 1996). It should be noted that the stability of beach ecosystems can be threatened by the mechanical beach cleaning operations carried out by numerous Local Authorities during peak season at amenity beaches, which tend to remove organic material (seaweed and driftwood) as well as litter items, reducing strandline biodiversity and disrupting the food chain (LLEWELLYN and SHACKLEY, 1996).
Floating and submerged marine litter also affects coastal economic activity. The aesthetic degradation (and potential associated health risks from SRD and some medical, military, and industrial wastes) of a beach by marine litter can result in lost revenue from tourism; therefore, Local Authorities are faced with clean-up costs in order to attract tourists (BALLANCE, RYAN, and TURPIE, 2000; ROEHL and DITTON,...