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1. Introduction
Growth in the non-profit sector looks very optimistic, with some predicting a potential rise in worldwide charitable giving of approximately $233bn by 2030 (Charities Aid Foundation, 2012a). In 2017 alone, Americans gave in excess of $410bn-$1.6m registered non-profits (GivingUSA, 2018), a number that had escalated by 25 per cent since 2011 (Blackwood et al., 2012). As the non-profit sector expands so does the number of organizations vying for attention, supporting the contention that charities face severe competition for potential donors’ time, effort and money (Faulkner and Romaniuk, 2019; Michaelidou et al., 2015a; Michaelidou et al., 2019; Wymer and Casidy, 2019). Research suggests that for charities to differentiate themselves from others, they must focus on key elements of their brand (Mort et al., 2007; Chapleo, 2013; Michaelidou et al., 2015b). Creating awareness and prominence using various brand elements such as logos, slogans and messaging is widely thought of as effective in bringing the brand to mind, providing it with an advantage over other brands in a purchase-related situation (Sääksjärvi et al., 2015). These elements are valuable for creating and maintaining a strong identity. They create awareness and symbolism and may, therefore, positively influence attitudes toward a brand (Keller, 2003).
Brand strength is a leading indicator of marketing outcomes specific to non-profit organizations and particularly in relation to peer brands (Wymer et al., 2016). It is, therefore, surprising that although much research attention has been directed to why people donate to charity (Bendapudi et al., 1996; Webb et al., 2000; Lee and Shrum, 2012; Boenigk and Helmig, 2013; Konrath and Handy, 2018), little has been paid to brand choice and how people decide who they give to (Bennett and Sargeant, 2005; Michel and Rieunier, 2012). This dichotomy is evident in the most prominent models of giving behavior within the mainstream, sector-specific and interdisciplinary literature (Bendapudi et al., 1996; Sargeant, 1999; Sargeant and Woodliffe, 2007a), where the factors involved in the choice between charities for donation in unsolicited giving situations remain relatively unclear. Where choice does receive some exposure within contextual literature, it is commonly paired with the belief that differentiation is central to a charity being selected by a potential donor. In such cases, brand...