METAPHORIZATION IN TOURISM DISCOURSE: FROM THE LANGUAGE OF GUIDEBOOKS TO CONCEPTUAL MODELS IN THE GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY

Abstract

This article investigates the pivotal role of metaphor as a cognitive and linguistic mechanism in shaping the specialized vocabulary of the tourism industry. Drawing on the conceptual metaphor theory developed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, as well as the cognitive-linguistic perspectives of A.D. Arutyunova, the study underscores that metaphor is not merely a rhetorical or stylistic device but a fundamental tool for conceptualizing, interpreting, and communicating human experiences. Metaphors serve as mental models that bridge abstract and concrete domains, allowing tourism professionals and consumers alike to comprehend complex or novel phenomena through familiar conceptual structures. The research is based on an in-depth analysis of English-language tourism discourse, focusing on metaphorical terms that have emerged within this rapidly developing field. These metaphors are not incidental; rather, they play a systematic and constructive role in naming, classifying, and promoting tourism experiences, services, and destinations. The study adopts a cognitive and anthropological approach to the analysis of metaphorical transfers, emphasizing their heuristic, explanatory, mnemonic, and communicative functions. Drawing on the classification framework proposed by Lakoff and Johnson, the article distinguishes between structural, orientational, ontological, synesthetic, simple, and extended metaphors. Each category is exemplified with authentic terminology and usage extracted from tourism industry texts, websites, guidebooks, and marketing materials. Particular attention is paid to structural and ontological metaphors, which are most frequently employed in tourism terminology. Structural metaphors map knowledge from concrete domains like "home" or "journey" onto more abstract tourism concepts, While ontological metaphors help conceptualize experiences and places as entities or living beings. By exploring the metaphorical richness of tourism discourse, the article demonstrates how metaphor facilitates conceptual innova tion, enhances the aesthetic and emotional resonance of communication, and strengthens intercultural understanding. Metaphor is shown to function not only as a linguistic resource but also as a reflection of the dynamic, imaginative, and associative nature of human cognition. Ultimately, the metaphorization of tourism vocabulary contributes to the formation of a vivid, expressive, and globally resonant terminological system, promoting both linguistic creativity and cognitive accessibility within the field.

Headnote

Abstract: This article investigates the pivotal role of metaphor as a cognitive and linguistic mechanism in shaping the specialized vocabulary of the tourism industry. Drawing on the conceptual metaphor theory developed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, as well as the cognitive-linguistic perspectives of A.D. Arutyunova, the study underscores that metaphor is not merely a rhetorical or stylistic device but a fundamental tool for conceptualizing, interpreting, and communicating human experiences. Metaphors serve as mental models that bridge abstract and concrete domains, allowing tourism professionals and consumers alike to comprehend complex or novel phenomena through familiar conceptual structures. The research is based on an in-depth analysis of English-language tourism discourse, focusing on metaphorical terms that have emerged within this rapidly developing field. These metaphors are not incidental; rather, they play a systematic and constructive role in naming, classifying, and promoting tourism experiences, services, and destinations. The study adopts a cognitive and anthropological approach to the analysis of metaphorical transfers, emphasizing their heuristic, explanatory, mnemonic, and communicative functions. Drawing on the classification framework proposed by Lakoff and Johnson, the article distinguishes between structural, orientational, ontological, synesthetic, simple, and extended metaphors. Each category is exemplified with authentic terminology and usage extracted from tourism industry texts, websites, guidebooks, and marketing materials. Particular attention is paid to structural and ontological metaphors, which are most frequently employed in tourism terminology. Structural metaphors map knowledge from concrete domains like "home" or "journey" onto more abstract tourism concepts, While ontological metaphors help conceptualize experiences and places as entities or living beings. By exploring the metaphorical richness of tourism discourse, the article demonstrates how metaphor facilitates conceptual innova tion, enhances the aesthetic and emotional resonance of communication, and strengthens intercultural understanding. Metaphor is shown to function not only as a linguistic resource but also as a reflection of the dynamic, imaginative, and associative nature of human cognition. Ultimately, the metaphorization of tourism vocabulary contributes to the formation of a vivid, expressive, and globally resonant terminological system, promoting both linguistic creativity and cognitive accessibility within the field.

Keywords: nominative function, heuristic, mnemonic, live metaphor, dead metaphor, animalistic metaphor, anthropomorphic

INTRODUCTION

Metaphor is considered an essential source for reflecting the diversity of reality in human consciousness and helps expand the terminological richness of the tourism industry's vocabulary through linguistic perception of surrounding objects and phenomena. Arutyunova (1990) views metaphor not only as a stylistic device but also as a fundamental element in the process of conceptual thinking and perceiving the world. According to her, metaphor plays a central role in forming and transmitting knowledge as it allows for the transfer of meanings from one domain to another, enriching the understanding of various phenomena. The scholar emphasizes that metaphorical thinking is fundamental to human cognitive activity as metaphors help us demonstrate our experiences, express and interpret emotions and abstract ideas. She argues that metaphors not only reflect our perception of the world but also actively shape it, influencing our way of thinking, communicating, and acting (Arutyunova, 1990). Lakoff (1993), an American linguist and one of the founders of the theory of conceptual metaphor in cognitive linguistics, considers metaphor not just a rhetorical device or speech ornament but a primary mechanism of our thinking and understanding of the world. Lakoff asserts that metaphors are deeply rooted in everyday communication and play a central role in how humans perceive and conceptualize experiences.

According to Lakoff (1993), metaphors do not only aid in communicating abstract ideas but actively shape the understanding of reality. He refers to this process as "conceptual metaphor," where one conceptual domain (source) is used to understand or describe another conceptual domain (target). For example, when we talk about time in terms of money ("spending time", "investing time"), we use the TIME IS MONEY metaphor, which helps us express our concept of time through the concept of money, a more familiar notion. Lakoff (1993) emphasizes that metaphorical thinking is not something artificial or external; it is an integral part of our cognitive apparatus, influencing our perception, thoughts, and actions at the most fundamental level. He and his colleagues, including Mark Johnson, have studied many types of everyday metaphors, showing how they shape our understanding of concepts such as time, love, politics, and war.

In his works, including "Metaphors We Live By" (Lakoff& Johnson, 2004), Lakoff(1993) notes that metaphorical thinking is not just an aspect of language but a fundamental aspect of human thought, rooted in the structure of our minds. This perspective opens up new approaches to studying language, thinking, and human culture in general (Lakoff, 1993).

Context and the Study Area

In this part of our work, we attempted to analyze English tourism discourse terms created based on metaphorical transfer. Anthropological and cognitive approaches help interpret metaphorical terms when examining metaphorical transfers. According to Alekseeva (1998), linguistic metaphorization is a key process in forming and developing terminology across various fields of knowledge. Alekseeva (1998) emphasizes that metaphor plays a crucial role in creating new terms, not merely serving as a stylistic element, enabling scientific and professional communities to effectively express complex ideas in a concise and understandable form. Her work focuses on how metaphorical transfers help transform abstract and complex concepts into clear and understandable terms. This is because metaphor allows for the use of already known and understandable objects to describe new phenomena or concepts, facilitating the process of accepting and assimilating new information (Alekseeva, 1998).

Indeed, the introduction of a term into language is determined by associative connections or similarities in shape, function, or emotion. Existing lexical units are used to linguistically express these signs, resulting in the semantic expansion of this unit at that moment. In scientific discourse, the following functions of metaphor are distinguished:

- Nominative (naming a phenomenon).

- Informative (providing information about a phenomenon).

- Text-forming.

- Heuristic, i.e., facilitating the acquisition of new knowledge.

- Explanatory.

- Mnemonic.

Clearly, the primary role of metaphor in scientific discourse, besides directly naming a phenomenon or object, is manifested in its heuristic function. This is related to the necessity of accurately expressing the internal form of the given lexeme, thereby finding a vivid external form that, while preserving the essence of the information, not only helps explain the phenomenon being named but also aids in better retention, serving an additional mnemonic function.

The text-forming function of a metaphorical term is evident when an obscure metaphor requires reference to the text for proper understanding. Here, the text-forming function is closely related to the explanatory function.

"Metaphor first manifests as a cognitive phenomenon that influences human thinking," says Baranov (2004). This underscores that metaphor is not merely a linguistic tool or speech ornament but is deeply connected to our way of understanding and interpreting the world. It activates our knowledge and experience, allowing us to see connections and relationships between seemingly unrelated concepts and objects.

The impact of metaphor on cognitive processes makes it a powerful tool in education, art, scienc e, and even everyday communication. Metaphors help explain complex ideas in simple and understandable language, making them more accessible to a wider audience. They support creative thinking, encouraging us to view familiar things from a new perspective and seek unconventional solutions (Baranov, 2014).

It is hard to overstate the importance of metaphorical transfers that reflect emerging phenomena in the formation of new lexical units. The tourism industry, by its nature, is a field of dynamically developing processes and phenomena. Therefore, in this area of human activity, metaphor serves as an effective source for expanding the terminological thesaurus and the vocabulary of the tourism industry. In classifying and categorizing the metaphors identified during the analysis of practical material, we used the mechanism described by Lakoff& Johnson (2004), which distinguishes between the source domain (the domain from which the metaphor is drawn) and the target domain (the domain to which the meaning is transferred).

In their work "Metaphors We Live By", the authors consider metaphors as mental processes that help structure cognitive experience and distinguish between the "source domain (i.e., the domain from which the conceptualization is sourced) and the target domain (i.e., the domain to which the meaning is transferred)" (Lakoff& Johnson, 2004).

METHODOLOGY

Before describing the activation of conceptual metaphors ("living metaphors") in the field of tourism discourse terminology, let's first discuss the characteristics of ordinary metaphors.

In the terminology of the tourism industry, as in other types of communication, there are many "faded" or "dead" metaphors that were initially very vivid but lost their imagery due to frequent use and were replaced by new, more vivid expressions. Gak (1998) referred to language as a "graveyard of dead metaphors," noting that many of the stable expressions and constructs we use in everyday speech today were originally metaphors. Over time, these metaphors have become so embedded in the language that their original figurative meaning has been lost or is unclear to modern language users. Thus, metaphors that were once lively and creative expressions have become ordinary linguistic units, losing their initial expressive power and becoming part of the standard lexicon (Gak, 1998).

Conceptualization encompasses the objects and phenomena of objective reality, which proceeds in accordance with the nature and mode of reflection of the metaphorization process (Efremov, 2013). This process shows how existing metaphors in the language help shape our worldview and aid in understanding reality.

The division into source domain and target domain helps in analyzing the content of the metaphorical sign, rev ealing its multilayered meaning - considering both the primary and auxiliary subjects simultaneously and determining by which attribute the comparison occurs. At the same time, the following classes of metaphors can be distinguished:

Animalistic metaphor - based on comparison with animals.

Anthropomorphic metaphor - based on comparing humans with objects, plants, or animals, including human emotions, intellect, creative and personal qualities, and human and animal physiology.

Physical world phenomena: including the physical properties of phenomena in the physical world. Social relations, culture, ideology, etc. Based on the terminological system of a particular field: legal, medical, sports, technical, musical, biological, automotive, and others. Lakoff& Johnson (2004) propose studying conceptual metaphors in three types: structural, ontological, and orientational. The main characteristic of structural metaphors is the conceptualization of abstract entities through known elements in experience.

Directional metaphors conceptualize abstract ideas through spatial relationships, such as up and down, inside and outside, near and far. These metaphors help us understand abstract concepts by relating them to our physical and spatial experiences. For example, when talking about concepts like happiness, time, and moral relationships, we often use directional metaphors, depicting them through spatial concepts such as "being on top of the world", "moving forward", "being close to one another", or "crossing a boundary". This undoubtedly makes understanding complex ideas easier.

Ontological metaphors allow us to perceive abstract phenomena as concrete entities with specific characteristics or as physical objects by separating the person from abstract events. Thus, we can describe abstract concepts as "things" with shape, location, or capable of interacting with other objects in physical or conceptual space. For instance, we might describe time as a "river," emotions as "things" that can be "held" or "released," or ideas as a "light illuminating our path."

Synesthetic metaphors, which hold a special place in the system, are based on linking different sensory -tactile experiences with new experiences. Levchina (2003) considers synesthetic metaphor as a tool expressing unique connections between different sensory experiences. These metaphors are created by transferring experiences from one sensory domain to another, such as associating colors with sounds or sounds with tastes. Levchina (2003) analyzes the use of synesthetic metaphor in poetry, literature, and art, emphasizing its significant role in enriching our speech and creative expression. These metaphors expand the possibilities of expressing a complex and multifaceted sensory experience, helping to create new and unexpected sensations through the art of words (Levchina, 2003).

By distinguishing two structurally different types described by Arnold (2002), one can gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of forming and perceiving metaphors in language. A simple metaphor has a single image, creating a direct comparison and allowing the language user to quickly grasp the essence of the association. This type of metaphor is often used to simplify and clarify abstract concepts by presenting them through concrete images.

In addition, an extended metaphor, which forms a secondary associative plan, has a more complex structure. This type of metaphor involves multiple levels of association and imagery, allowing for broader comprehension and interpretation. Extended metaphors add deep and multi-layered meaning to the text, stimulating the active thinking and imagination of the reader or listener. They help create a more powerful emotional impact and support complex ideas and themes (Arnold, 2002). It should be noted that categorizing metaphorically-formed terms into a specific type of metaphor is often subjective, as many metaphorical terms can be multi-layered and may simultaneously belong to several types of metaphors described in modern linguistics.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Now, let's examine the metaphors used in tourism discourse terminology.

1. Structural Metaphors in Tourism Industry Terminology

Block: A number of rooms, seats, or spaces booked in advance, usually by wholesalers, tour operators, or incoming operators, with the intention of selling them as components of tour packages.

Source Domain: "Home and Household". Association Vector: metonymic transfer. Since a room is considered a primary place of rest for a person, its booking is associated with the overall booking of a hotel or inn. Target Domain: hotel service organization.

Complimentary room: A hotel room provided without charge. Complimentary rooms are usually occupied by the tour group manager or driver.

Source Domain: "Home and Household". Association Vector: metonymic transfer. It is a token of gratitude from the hotel for the clients brought in. Target Domain: hotel service organization.

Example: A hotel might offer a complimentary room to a guest who experienced a significant issue during their last stay, such as a room not being ready on time or a malfunctioning air conditioning unit. The complimentary room would typically be of equal or greater value than the one originally booked and would include all the amenities and services that a paying guest would receive. This gesture helps maintain customer satisfaction and loyalty (Ilies et al. 2023).

Continental plan: A hotel rate that includes an overnight stay with a continental breakfast.

Source Domain: "Home and Household". Association Vector: daily routine, where the guest leaves in the morning (light breakfast after an overnight stay) and spends most of the day outside the hotel. Target Domain: typology of hotel services.

Full house: Indicates that all hotel rooms are booked.

Source Domain: "Home and Household". Association Vector: metonymic transfer, comparing the hotel to a home and the lack of available space within it. Target Domain: typology of hotel services.

Example: The annual jazz festival enjoyed a full house on its opening night, with fans from all over the country filling the venue to enjoy performances by renowned artists (lies et al. 2023).

Dine-around-plan: A plan allowing tourists to dine at various restaurants during their trip using vouchers and coupons.

Example: We are planning a vacation to Bermuda in September or October and am wondering if anyone has used the "dine around" option that they offer at the Reefs or Cambridge (Bakir, 2012).

The excerpt illustrates the terminological definition where tourists are provided with the opportunity to dine at various restaurants using special coupons during their stay.

2. Directional Metaphors

Here are examples of metaphorical terms related to location or movement through time and space in the field of tourism:

Frontier destinations: Refers to places at the edge or boundary of the explored or known world, offering a sense of adventure and discovery within the scope of familiar things.

Example: Antarctica, which, despite its harsh conditions, attracts adventurers looking to experience its immense ice landscapes, unique wildlife, and the sheer remoteness that comes with being one of the least visited places on Earth. This frontier destination appeals to travellers seeking adventure, solitude, and a deep connection with nature and traditional cultures (Caciora et al., 2024).

Gateway city: A city that serves as an entry point to a country or region, providing travellers with their first impressions and the opportunity to embark on further explorations. This metaphor is based on functional similarity.

Orientation tour: A tour designed to introduce a new city or area, helping travellers develop a sense of direction and become familiar with the main attractions.

Example: At the start of a week-long guided vacation package in Paris, the tour operator might include an orientation tour of the city on the first day. This tour would typically be conducted on a bus or walking tour format, taking guests past iconic sights like the Eiffel Tower, the Louvre Museum, Notre Dame Cathedral, and along the Seine River. The guide would provide an overview of Paris's history, pointers on navigating the city's public transportation system, tips for dining out, and advice on local customs (Wendt et al., 2021).

Panoramic view: Describes a wide, unobstructed view of an area, usually from a high vantage point, offering a comprehensive orientation of the landscape.

Trailhead: The starting point of a trail or route, indicating the beginning of a journey for hiking or exploration. This metaphor is based on functional similarity.

Example: One of the most famous trailheads in the United States is the start of the Mist Trail in Yosemite National Park. This trailhead serves as the gateway to some of the park's most iconic sights, including Vernal Fall and Nevada Fall. The journey begins at the trailhead located near the Happy Isles Nature Center, offering hikers the chance to immerse themselves in the stunning natural beauty of Yosemite. The path leads through lush meadows, alongside rushing streams, and up steep granite steps, culminating in breathtaking views of waterfalls that mist the air, hence the trail's name. The Mist Trail Trailhead is not just a starting point but an invitation to explore the wonders of one of America's most beloved national parks (Lyon, 1999).

Cross-country: Refers to traveling across rural or local areas, navigating through various landscapes and routes. The metaphor is based on the inner form of the verb "cross" - to traverse, breaking continuity. The metaphorical meaning is created through the combination of lexical units.

Cultural compass: As a metaphorical term, it offers guidance through the cultural landscape of a destination, helping tourists become familiar with local customs, traditions, and landmarks.

Landmark navigation: Using important or easily recognizable landmarks to navigate through a city or area.

Pathfinder tours: Tours that lead tourists through unknown or lesser-known areas, metaphorically serving as a guide or orientation in unfamiliar territory.

Eco-directional tourism: A branch of tourism oriented towards sustainability and environmental conservation, guiding tourists to make environmentally responsible travel choices.

Example: Costa Rica is renowned for its dedication to conservation and ecotourism, and the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is a prime example of this commitment. Situated in the heart of the country, this reserve is home to thousands of plant species, hundreds of animal species, and an extensive network of trails that allow visitors to explore its unique ecosystem without causing harm. The reserve's efforts in conservation, research, and community involvement make it a model for eco-directional tourism. Visitors can participate in guided nature walks led by local experts, bird - watching tours focusing on the reserve's diverse avian population, and sustainable coffee plantation tours. These activities not only provide a direct connection to nature but also support the local economy and conservation efforts. Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve exemplifies how tourism can be both a journey of discovery and a means to protect natural environments for future generations (Lyon, 1999).

Culinary map: A conceptual or actual map highlighting notable food and drink spots in a region, guiding tourists to gastronomic experiences. This metaphor is based on functional similarity.

3. Ontological Metaphors

Ontological metaphors used in the field of tourism terminology provide abstract concepts with more concrete, "living" characteristics, allowing for a deeper understanding and appreciation of the essence of the tourist experience:

Heart of the city: The city is depicted as a living being, with its heart symbolizing the central, most lively, and vibrant part.

Face of the city: The city is considered to have a face, representing its uniqueness and character visible through its architecture, squares, and streets.

Breath of history: History is not only an element of the past but "breathes" through monuments, architecture, and museums, providing a sense of living history.

Example: Rome, known as the Eternal City, breathes history at every turn, and the Colosseum stands as a monumental example of this. Built nearly 2,000 years ago, the Colosseum is a testament to the architectural in genuity and the cultural depth of the Roman Empire. Walking through its arches, visitors can almost hear the echoes of gladiators' battles and the roar of the ancient crowds. The Colosseum not only serves as a physical link to Rome's glorious past but also invites contemplation on the human stories that unfolded within its walls. This iconic structure embodies "The Breath of History," offering an immersive experience that connects the present with the timeless narrative of human endeavor and civilization's progress (Dubrovskiy, 2012).

Travel through time: Time becomes a place that can be traveled through, allowing for the experience of different periods and historical moments.

Living culture: Culture is presented as an entity that can grow, develop, and change, highlighting its dynamic and active nature.

Language of cuisine: Cuisine is depicted as a language used to express culinary ideas, emotions, and cultural characteristics, emphasizing its communicative and expressive functions.

Voices of the city: The city "speaks" through the sounds of its streets, markets, and squares, conveying its unique atmosphere and mood.

Embrace of nature: Nature is depicted as an entity that can embrace, creating a sense of protection, comfort, and closeness to the natural environment.

These ontological metaphors help tourists feel and understand the essence of tourist destinations more deeply, transforming abstract concepts into more tangible and relatable images.

4. Synesthetic Metaphors

Touristic terms, by using synesthetic metaphors, blend various senses, creating vivid and memorable descriptions. These metaphors enrich the narration of travel experiences and evoke a deeper emotional connection to the described places:

Palette of flavors: This term imagines the diverse culinary experiences of a destination as if one could see the tastes through colors, creating a visual experience.

Example: A traditional Moroccan tagine is a vibrant example of a palette of flavors, combining sweet, savory, spicy, and tangy elements to create a harmonious and complex taste experience (Borzenko, 2012).

Symphony of landscapes: This phrase suggests that the visual experience of various landscapes is akin to listening to a complex musical composition, where different elements harmonize.

Example: New Zealand offers a symphony of landscapes within its relatively small landmass. Travelers can witness the serene beauty of its rolling green hills in the Waikato region, contrasted by the dramatic, jagged peaks of the Southern Alps. Alongside these, the deep blue of the fiords in Fiordland National Park adds a serene, almost mystical quality to the mix. Not far away, the thermal wonderlands of Rotorua present steaming geysers and bubbling mud pools, showcasing the Earth's raw power. Completing this natural symphony, the golden beaches of the Coromandel Peninsula offer a tranquil finale, with their soft sands and gentle waves. Each of these landscapes contributes its unique notes to New Zealand's overall melody, making it a destination that sings with natural beauty and diversity (Bakir, 2012).

Canvas of lights: This describes the visual effect of a city's or place's lights at night as akin to lines in a painting, suggesting that the vibrancy and 'texture' of the place can be felt through viewing.

Example: The cityscape at night creates a canvas of lights, where the bright illuminations form a picturesque view that brings the city's vibrancy to life, making each light an integral part of the overall masterpiece.

Whispering sands: This metaphor combines sound and touch, suggesting that the movement of soft sand can be felt as a whisper against the skin, evoking an intimate experience of being in the desert.

Example: As you walk along the dunes, the whispering sands caress your feet, creating a sensation that merges the gentle rustling sound of the grains with a soft tactile experience, capturing the essence of the desert's tranquility and beauty.

Example: The Sahara, stretching across several countries in North Africa, is the largest hot desert in the world. It's a place of extreme beauty and stark contrasts, where the endless dunes seem to communicate with visitors through their gentle movements and soft whispers. The experience of standing amidst the Sahara's dunes as the wind creates a tranquil sound of shifting sands can feel like listening to ancient stories being whispered by the desert itself (Gritzner et al., 2025).

Tapestry of cultures: A term suggesting that the rich, intricately connected cultural experiences of a place are woven together like a beautiful fabric, blending the "textures" and "colors" of various traditions and histories.

Example: India is a country known for its tapestry of cultures, languages, religions, and traditions. India's vast diversity is evident in its many festivals, such as Diwali, Holi, Eid, and Christmas, which are celebrated with great enthusiasm across the nation (Wolpert et al., 2025).

Melody of the streets: This phrase suggests that by walking through the streets of a place, one can "hear" its history, culture, and the daily life of its people, as if the atmosphere of the city creates a unique musical score.

Scented hues: A term suggesting that the distinct scents of a place can evoke vivid "colors" in one's imagination, combining the experiences of smell and sight to paint a picture of the location.

Example: This experience of scented hues makes the lavender field more than just a visual spectacle; it becomes a multi-sensory journey, where the color purple is forever remembered not just for its beauty but for the serene feeling it invokes, blending sight and scent in a memorable tapestry of sensory delight (Bakir, 2012).

Velvet nights: Evokes the feeling of deep tranquility, luxury, or richness in the atmosphere of an evening. This term suggests a smooth, almost tactile sensation of the night, indicating an enchanting and comforting profound experience.

Example: Imagine a small, ancient city nestled in the mountains, where after sundown, the streets become illuminated by soft, warm lanterns. On these velvet nights, the air is cool and crisp, carrying the faint scent of woodsmoke and the distant sound of a guitar serenading (Dubrovskiy, 2012).

5. Simple Metaphors

In touristic terminology, simple metaphors often use vivid imagery to make destinations, experiences, and attractions more understandable and memorable for potential visitors:

The city's heartbeat: This metaphor describes the lively, invigorating atmosphere of a city, likening it to the beating heart of a living organism.

Nature's canvas: Used to describe breathtaking natural landscapes, this metaphor suggests that the scenery is as beautiful and carefully crafted as paintings on a canvas.

A gem of the sea: This phrase is used to describe a beautiful coastal town or island, indicating that it is precious and highly sought after like a valuable gem.

The melting pot: A metaphor for a place rich in cultural diversity, where various cultures and traditions mix together like ingredients in a pot to create something unique and valuable.

A tapestry of history: This term suggests that the historical layers of a place are woven together like a fabric, creating a rich, textured story of the past.

A stairway to heaven: Used to describe breathtakingly beautiful and peaceful places, this metaphor suggests that visiting the place feels like ascending to a heavenly, serene location.

An open-air museum: This metaphor is used to describe cities or towns where historical buildings, streets, and monuments are so well-preserved and abundant that the entire area feels like a museum without walls.

A crossroads of cultures: Used to describe a place where various cultural influences intersect, suggesting that different cultural "roads" meet, creating a lively and dynamic environment.

6. Extended Metaphors

In touristic terminology, extended metaphors use a broad metaphorical framework to enrich the description and provide a more immersive experience:

The City as a Theater: This extended metaphor can describe the city's vibrant street life, historic architecture, and cultural events as if the city is a grand stage, its residents and visitors are actors, and each street and square are scenes of an ongoing performance. The narrative can delve into the city's daily dramas, its festivals as grand performances, and its ancient facades as silent storytellers of history.

Garden of Earthly Delights: Borrowed from Hieronymus Bosch's famous painting, this metaphor can describe a lush, tropical destination as a sensory paradise. The narrative explores the destination's natural wonders, vibrant wildlife, and exotic flora as elements of an earthly paradise, inviting visitors to revel in its beauty and mysteries.

The Lighthouse of Civilization: An ancient city or historical site can be described with this extended metaphor, presenting it as a beacon guiding humanity through history. The site's monuments, ruins, and artifacts are portrayed as lights that have illuminated paths of innovation, culture, and understanding over the centuries.

Example: The ancient city of Alexandria could be described as "The Lighthouse of Civilization" due to its legendary Library of Alexandria and the Pharos, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The library was a monumental center of learning and scholarship, attracting scholars, scientists, poets, and philosophers from across the known world, facilitating the exchange of ideas and the accumulation of knowledge (Goldschmidt et al., 2025).

The Melting Pot of Flavors: For a destination known for its culinary diversity, this metaphor goes beyond the mix of simple ingredients to explore the historical, cultural, and social influences that have shaped the culinary culture. Each dish tells a story of migration, trade, and fusion, inviting visitors to taste the world in a single bite.

Example: Straddling two continents, Istanbul's cuisine embodies a melting pot of flavors influenced by European and Asian culinary traditions. Dishes like kebabs, mezze, and sweets like baklava offer a taste of the rich cultural interchange that has shaped the city (Safarov et al., 2023).

CONCLUSION

As a result of the analysis of metaphorized terms in touristic discourse, it is necessary to highlight primarily structural and ontological metaphors.

The list of signs and situations where associative transfers occur in the formation of new terms is not limited to those mentioned above, as the classification of metaphors is still an open issue in modern linguistics.

According to the theory of cognitive metaphor, the source domain, as a reflection of the diversity and generalization of the world view in language, is continuously expanding, finding new expressions in "the constantly recurring processes of human physical interaction with reality" (Lakoff & Johnson, 2004).

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.B.; methodology, M.B.; software, M.B.; validation, M.B.; formal analysis, M.B.; investigation, M.B.; resources, M.B.; data curation, M.B.; writing - original draft preparation, M.B.; writing - review and editing, M.B.; visualization, M.B.; supervision, M.B.; project administration, M.B.; funding acquisition, М.В. Author have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research work was carried out within the framework of the project "Development of Methodological Foundations for Organizing Inclusive Tourism" (based on the example of Kiziltepa, Nurata, and Khatirchi districts of Navoi region), Project code: IL-9124093892-R3.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study may be obtained on request from the corresponding author. Methods for Optimizing Property Relations as a Key Aspect of Stimulating the Development of the Tourism Industry.

Acknowledgements: The research undertaken was made possible by the scientific involvement of the author.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declare no conflict of interest.

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Citation: Buzrukova, M. (2025). Metaphorization in tourism discourse: From the language of guidebooks to conceptual models in the global development of the tourism industry. Geojournal of Tourism and Geosites, 61(3), 1751-1757. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.61333-1543

Article history: Received: 17.04.2025 Revised: 11.07.2025 Accepted: 07.08.2025 Available online: 02.09.2025

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