Climate Change Impacts on Facade Building Materials: A Qualitative Study

Abstract

Recently, various parts of the world are being affected by different climate change incidents causing hindrances to day-to-day activities. The concept of constructing sustainable buildings has gained traction as climate change and other risks increase, allowing them to endure future natural or artificial disasters while maintaining functionality. As facade building materials are impacted considerably by climate change due to exposure to various such conditions, the focus of this study is to identify the climate change impacts on facade building materials. A qualitative research method with an interview research design was used for the study. Twelve semi-structured expert interviews by selecting the experts through the judgmental sampling method were undertaken along with a detailed analysis of the literature. The gathered data were evaluated using software-assisted thematic content analysis. According to the results, climate change has a substantial impact on facade building materials, despite the fact that few governments, particularly those in developing nations, have given considerable attention. Moreover, these identified impacts on facade building materials from climate change have the potential to cause catastrophic occupational health and safety risks for facade maintenance workers which also should be gained more consideration in the world as per the findings of this study in order to create a safer working environment for the workers to carry out their activities. Additionally, the research techniques used in this study can be expanded to cover a variety of other potential building materials and operations. As a result, this research is focused on a new subject matter that must be given more concern by researchers, because of its significance in the current global settings.

1. Introduction

Buildings are inextricably linked to present human existence, as people live over 90% of their time indoors [1,2]. High-rise buildings, traditionally defined as structures with many floors that are greater in height than the neighbouring buildings, have evolved to be increasingly prominent in urban regions in emerging countries in the tropical region, like Sri Lanka in the past few decades [3]. Rapid urbanisation, population increase, and economic growth have all led to the creation of high-rise buildings in key cities such as Colombo, Kandy, and Galle [4]. Although these structures provide a variety of functions, including commercial, residential, and combined use, these slew of high-rise buildings have been added to the urban fabric with no regard for climate sensitivity or environmental implications [3]. Therefore, the current situation is accelerating and generating more adverse circumstances for individuals along with the environment [3]. Thus, climate change is capable of having a negative impact on the materials that compose the facades of buildings, causing degradation and damage [5]. Moreover, these effects of climate change on facade building material degradation can result in occupational health and safety (OHS) issues for facade maintenance employees as exposure to defective or degraded facade materials can raise the likelihood of injuries and accidents throughout facade maintenance activities [5]. As a result, facade maintenance employees must be aware of the possible risks resulting from climate change-induced degradation of facade materials and take appropriate safety measures throughout their daily operations.

Accordingly, the world is vulnerable to rapidly varying climate change that impacts humans and various industries [6]. At present, sudden variations in general climatic conditions that are capable of causing catastrophic impacts at unexpected levels are experienced around the world [7]. Thus, most people have seen climate as an unpredictable element that has the capability to bring both hazards and opportunities to mankind [6]. Thus, the impacts of climate change can be identified at almost all levels; world, region, country, and municipal units that have specified the requirements for a multi-level set of actions [8]. Accordingly, climate change can be described as the changes in the prolonged average natural weather conditions over the defined variation levels [9]. Thus, inadvertent actions of human beings are the major cause of the occurrence of climate change [6]. However, two major causes for climate change can be identified, namely, anthropogenic causes (deforestation, fossil fuel burning, variations in land usage, industrial activities, and forest degradation), and natural causes (variations in solar radiation and eruption of volcanoes) [10]. Accordingly, the average global temperature has aroused since the middle of the 20th century as a result of the increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs), namely, methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide since 1750 [11]. Because the temperature at the surface of the Earth and troposphere is increased and also the stratosphere is decreased with the increase in the atmosphere’s GHG concentration like carbon dioxide [12]. Furthermore, the precipitation, water cycle, and evaporation patterns of the Earth also accelerated at the same time [12]. GHGs are emitted into the atmosphere through various human activities, namely, power generation, deforestation, land use practices, agricultural practices, forestry, construction, and other industry practices, burning of fossil fuels, and natural processes, namely, respiration, etc. [13].

The contribution of Sri Lanka to the emission of GHGs is negligible as per the records of the Ministry of Forest and Environment [14]. However, vulnerability to climate change is considerably higher in tropical countries, such as Sri Lanka, where numerous extreme weather conditions such as cyclones, droughts, floods and lightning have been experienced with an increasing frequency [10]. Accordingly, consequences of climate change are experienced in all areas of Sri Lanka with resultant temperature variations being recorded generally in the lowlands in Sri Lanka resulting in temperature fluctuations concerning the rise of altitude [10]. Thus, climate change is a complicated and multidimensional issue that has an effect on several facets the lifestyles, such as the built environment [15]. Accordingly, building facades, that are subjected to a variety of environmental stresses as well as strains, are especially susceptible to the consequences of climate change [15].

By blocking off undesirable exterior climate variables, the building envelope performs an important role in producing acceptable internal surroundings [3]. Therefore, the overall performance of the building is considerably dependent on the facade components’ performance [16]. Thus, special consideration should be given to facade maintenance also as the facade is an important element of a building that directly affects comfort, performance, and aesthetic appearance, and the facade’s overall performance is directly affected by the maintenance works which are performed for the facade [17]. Moreover, facade materials might include stones, brick, glass, concrete, metallic material, and composite components, and the material selection is influenced by considerations such as endurance, appearance, energy conservation, and budget [18]. Technological and material advancements have enabled new facade designs including double-skin facades, green facades, and smart facades, which include characteristics such as insulation, shading, and capture of energy [19].

Temperature increases, extreme weather conditions including hurricanes, heavy precipitation, and continuous moisture exposure are all factors that may have an impact on the performance and longevity of facade materials, leading them to erode or degrade [5]. Accordingly, the increasing degree of severity and frequency of catastrophic weather events is one of the most significant impacts that climate change has on facade building materials [20]. Buildings are subjected to greater wind pressure, excessive moisture levels, and even more severe ultraviolet (UV) radiation as temperature increases and weather conditions become more erratic [15]. These environmental pressures may lead to a variety of issues with building facades, including cracking, deformation, rusting, and deterioration [20]. Moreover, climate change can have indirect impacts on building materials along with these direct effects, for example, rising sea levels, and varying patterns of precipitation can cause increased humidity and moisture destruction in buildings, especially those in coastal or low-lying territories [20]. Accordingly, variations in air quality and levels of pollution, on the other hand, can hasten the degradation of building materials, especially those composed of highly permeable materials such as stone or brick [20].

The limited research that has been conducted to study the effect of climate change on facade building materials used a variety of research methodologies to study the impacts of climate change on different kinds of facade building materials such as wood, masonry, and metallic materials, such as field investigations, laboratory tests, numerical models, and literature reviews. Despite the beneficial findings gained from existing research, various limits and flaws must be addressed. One disadvantage is the paucity of long-term field research that directly quantify the effects of climate change on facade materials over long periods. Most research relies on models or laboratory trials, which may not accurately represent the intricate relationships between climate change and facade material deterioration in real-world situations. There is also a lack of consistency in research methods and criteria for assessing the impact of climate change on facade materials. Different research may employ various methods for measuring, climate situations, and deterioration models, making it difficult to make comparisons and generalise findings across investigations. Furthermore, the vast majority of previous study has concentrated on particular kinds of facade materials or geographies, which may limit the findings’ applicability to other facade materials. Further study is also needed on the OHS implications on facade maintenance employees from impacts of climate change on facade materials depicting a considerable knowledge gap in this area. Considering the limitations that currently can be identified in existing research, there is an urgent need for further studies on the influence of climate change on facade building materials. Accordingly, the aim of this study is to identify the potential impacts of climate change on different facade building materials along with the OHS risks that can cause by these impacts on facade building materials. This study will help to directly quantify the effects of climate change on facade materials in real-world circumstances, utilizing established climatic scenarios. This could result in more precise and trustworthy information on the rates, mechanisms, and effects of climate change on various kinds of facade materials. Moreover, this study will help to make a significant contribution to knowledge regarding this significant research arena that should be given more attention by researchers in the present context and notify potential approaches for adapting facade materials to climate change challenges.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Climate Change

Climate change can be considered a global emergency [21]. Thus, climate change can be referred to the variations of the climate that are affected either directly or indirectly by the activities of humans and global atmospheric composition [22]. Accordingly, climate change is a risk for the climate system, which creates the foundation for the life and health conditions of human beings [23]. The sudden variations in the occurrence of droughts, floods, heat waves, rainfalls, sea waves, global warming, and cyclones are some examples of climate change [24]. Hence, these weather system changes have occurred over decades [25].

Accordingly, Sri Lanka is experiencing severe climate change conditions due to its location in a tropical region [8]. Thus, mainly 03 major climate changes can be experienced in Sri Lanka, namely, ambient temperature increase, rainfall distribution pattern variations, and acceleration of occurrence and severity of extreme weather conditions, as well as sea-level rise, also is identified in addition to the above changes [8].

Furthermore, climate change has a profound effect on both the environment as well as a human society [26]. Moreover, climate change has resulted in considerable consequences for the built environment, especially building facades, which are susceptible to alterations in climate conditions and may influence building energy performance as well as sustainability [26]. Thus, the consequences of climate change can affect both the durability and performance of facade materials that are subjected to outdoor environmental circumstances [27].

2.1.1. Temperature Variation

At present, climate change is being experienced in a significant range [22]. The hottest 13 years of the 14 years have been recorded since 2000 enabling all the successive decades after 1980 as the hottest decades than the last decades [8]. As per the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the period from 2006 to 2015 has been identified as the decade with the highest temperature levels and the highest temperature level has been recorded in the year 2015 [28]. A temperature of 1.1–6.4 °C is being predicted as the mean range of global surface warming from 2090 to 2099 as per the composition of the emissions of greenhouse gases [11].

Generally, 26–28 °C average temperature in the coastal area and 15–19 °C average temperature in higher altitudes (above 1500 m) can be experienced throughout the country [29]. Accordingly, varied temperature rates have been recorded from different parts of Sri Lanka as the temperature is rising gradually in every part of the country and an increase in the average maximum daytime and minimum night-time temperatures resulting in average annual temperature anomalies can be identified [8].

2.1.2. Sea Level Rise

In the century from 1901 to 2010, a rise of 0.19 m in the sea level has been recorded and an increase in the rise of sea level is being predicted in this century as oceans’ thermal expansions and melting of glaciers have been accelerated recently [8]. Therefore, if a complete melting of the Greenland ice sheet occurs, then, the world’s average sea level will be aroused by approximately 7 m [30]. However, the average height of the sea level will be in a range of 40–75 cm by 2100 as per recent projections [31].

Accordingly, a 1–3 mm sea level rise per year can be identified in the Asian region which is higher than the average value as well a rise in sea level can be identified in Sri Lankan coastal region also due to the location in the Indian Ocean as a small island [8]. A higher vulnerability to exposure to sea-level rise can be identified in the southern and western regions of the country [32].

2.1.3. Precipitation Variations

Thus, an increase in precipitation content in higher latitudes and a decrease in subtropical areas, higher intense typhoons and hurricanes with higher precipitation and wind speed peaks, and poleward extratropical storm movements with continuous variations in wind, precipitation, and temperature patterns will be expected as per projections [11]. Thus, considerable changes in precipitations have been recorded in the last 50 years [23]. Arid and semi-arid areas in the world have experienced dry conditions while regions in higher and mid altitudes have experienced wet conditions due to the precipitation pattern variations [9].

Accordingly, the annual average rainfall in Sri Lanka is approximately about 1850 mm [8]. Furthermore, rainfall in Sri Lanka is received from three major sources, namely, monsoonal, depressional, and conventional [8]. A higher average annual rainfall of over 2500 mm in the wet zone, an average annual rainfall of not less than 1750 mm in the dry zone, and an average annual rainfall of 1750–2500 mm in the intermediate zone can be experienced [8]. Moreover, El Nino and La Nina conditions are caused by precipitation patterns [29]. The average rainfall in Sri Lanka is having a decreasing trend enabling an increase in more consecutive dry days and a decrease in more consecutive wet days [8]. This identified decreasing trend is approximately about 7% at the end of the 20th century [33]. Accordingly, the occurrence of landslides and heavy rainfalls in hilly areas, and floods in lowlands can be experienced as outcomes of long-prevailing monsoon rains [8].

2.1.4. Extreme Weather Events

According to the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC, extreme weather events, namely, droughts, cyclones, floods, etc., have been recorded frequently in most locations all around the world in the period from 2006 to 2015 as an outcome of climate change [28].

Sri Lanka is experiencing various extreme weather events, namely, landslides, drought, floods, and storms as an outcome of climate change [34]. Accordingly, recently, an increase in the severity and the frequency of extreme weather events, namely, droughts, and floods can be reckoned [8]. Thus, an in-depth correlation can be seen between landslide locations and areas with higher rainfall intensities [8]. Moreover, Sri Lanka is ranked at the 45th level for exposure to tropical cyclones and related hazards in the INFORM 2019 Risk Index [33]. Moreover, currently, Sri Lanka is experiencing considerable meteorological droughts and Sri Lanka is ranked at the 56th level for exposure to floods containing flash floods and riverine in INFORM 2019 Risk Index [33].

2.2. Facades

A facade can be considered a significant static building feature in the exterior envelope of a structure since it aids the other structural elements of the building [35]. Mostly as an outcome, facades have developed over the years to conform to numerous architectural designs [36]. Generally, present building facades are acting as the barriers between the outside and inside environments of a building [16]. Because facades serve a significant function in monitoring the connection between a building’s inner and external spaces, influencing aspects such as sunlight, temperature, noise, and the quality of the air [37]. Therefore, water, energy and heat exchange and storage are performed by facades [38]. Thus, the influence of varied external environments had to be offset by facades depending on the climate zone to retain consistent inside climatic conditions [39]. Facades are providing shade from the sun’s rays and allow for the movement of cold night airflow in warm and humid climates [39]. Almost as a result, facade design, construction, and maintenance are more complicated than other building elements [40].

2.2.1. Functions of Facades

Accordingly, facades are affected by the aesthetic appearance, safety, and comfort of the buildings [17]. Therefore, control of fire, strength and rigidity, control of rain penetration, noise controls, sustainability, control heat flow, UV protection, protection from microorganisms, and control of dampness, etc., are the user requirements that should be performed by the facades [17]. In addition, facades regulate the overall quality and amount of daylight in inside spaces by controlling the quantity of natural light which penetrates the building [41]. Windows, skylights, and shading mechanisms can be used in facade design to control natural light penetration, resulting in an adequately illuminated and aesthetically comfortable internal atmosphere [42]. For example, in warmer climates, facades have been developed to limit heat gain from the sun and offer shade, keeping interior rooms comfy and cool [41]. Facades are also constructed to offer insulation and decrease heat loss in cold areas, adding to the conservation of energy and thermal comfort within the building [43]. Facades additionally function as barriers to noise, assisting to establish quiet indoor conditions [37]. Facade design in urban regions experiencing severe noise pollution, including nearby busy roadways or airports, can integrate soundproofing materials as well as methods to reduce noise transmission inside the structure [44]. Moreover, the external walls of a building are protected from extreme climate conditions with the help of facades to improve the durability of the structures of buildings [36].

Furthermore, mechanical, gravitational and environmental loads should be withstood by facades [36]. Thus, facade design and engineering are integrated with other fields, namely, material technology, building physics, building design and construction processes, climate and structural design, etc., most of the time [39]. Facades should be developed into three sections, namely, the cap which is referred to the roofline in which the contact with the sky is made by the building, the body which is referred to the upper architecture in which most of the structure is made, and the base which is referred to the ground level in which the contact with the Earth is made by the building [45]. As high-rise buildings are becoming more complex with varied facade structures, facade maintenance, and access has become more challenging by requiring advanced conditions of customisation, coordination, and efficiency [46].

2.2.2. Facade Maintenance

Thus, proper identification of the facade components is essential to decide maintenance requirements [40]. On the other hand, appropriate maintenance activities either predictive or reactive or preventive should be scheduled based on the performance of facade components [17]. Therefore, in-depth inspections should be performed to identify abnormal conditions of facade components where those components should be treated with appropriate measures [40].

Facade panels should be replaced by complying with the installer’s instructions [47]. Furthermore, inspections on panel joints should be performed periodically to avoid the occurrence of gasket and sealant faults [48]. Thus, various attributes, namely, occupancy, type of building, weather, etc., are affected the frequency of facade maintenance activities [46]. Predictive, preventive, and reactive maintenance activities can be performed by considering the components’ behaviour and major and minor interventions, cleaning, caulking, inspections, treatments for surface protection, replacements, metal polishing, and repairs are some of the facade maintenance techniques [17].

Accordingly, detailed inspections for facades in existing buildings should be performed with appropriate diagnostic techniques in order to identify elements that are maintained, any anomalies in the condition of finishing, plastering, cleanness, and background adherence and their causes [40]. Replacement of panels in facades should also be performed as per the guidelines of the installer [47]. Moreover, joints in between panels should be regularly inspected in order to ensure that they are free of sealant or gasket failures as it will lead to water penetrations and regular cleaning should be performed for large facade elements [48]. Cleaning of lower facade areas is performed frequently as pedestrians and occupants can witness those areas more easily and observational areas in the facades which are comprised of glasses are also frequently cleaned [46].

2.2.3. Impact of Workers on Facade Maintenance and Possible Risks

Workers can influence the effectiveness and quality of facade maintenance as workers with adequate training and experience can assist with guaranteeing that those maintenance tasks are executed efficiently and effectively, reducing the need for future expensive and time-consuming repair work [15]. Because, although workers have a vital function in building facade maintenance, their involvement can generate significant risks that need to be effectively managed [49].

Thus, workers performing facade maintenance are sometimes subjected to an array of risks, such as falls from great heights, exposure to temperature extremes and weather patterns, and risks involved with using tools and equipment and chemicals [49]. Workers on building facades can pose additional risks to building users and the general public, especially in densely populated urban areas [15]. Efficient interaction and collaboration among maintenance workers, occupants, and local governments can help to reduce such hazards while guaranteeing that maintenance operations are carried out safely and with as little disruption as possible [15].

2.2.4. Facade Building Materials

Accordingly, facades are comprised of structural elements which are helped for wind resistance either vertically or laterally, and building envelope elements which are helped for weather, acoustic, thermal, and fire resistance [50]. Hence, the performance of the components of the facade is affecting the overall building’s performance [17]. Accordingly, the use of inappropriate materials in building facades can result in a variety of issues, including poor durability, physical instability, as well as a higher maintenance expenses [51]. For example, the utilisation of poor-quality cladding materials was identified as a contributing cause of the Grenfell Tower disaster in London in 2017, which claimed 72 people [52]. Therefore, it is essential to select appropriate facade building materials [51]. Thus, facades are comprised of various types of claddings, openings, and walls [40]. Presently, facades have used various materials for their construction as shown in Table 1 [36].

Accordingly, ceramics, natural stones which are used as cladding materials due to their higher durability, plastics which are used for the frames of PVC windows due to their UV resistance, glasses which are used as claddings of the facades in its visual and nonvisual areas, concrete, and metals (specifically steel) which are used as cladding and structural load-bearing components have been used for the construction of facades [38]. Moreover, metals and plastics are used as the coatings for facades to prevent corrosion and enhance some of the physical characteristics, namely, waterproofing or sealing and fire resistance [38].

2.2.5. Environmental Impacts of Different Facade Types

The impact on the environment from a building facade is determined by several aspects, including the utilised materials, the orientation of the building, the allowed quantity of natural light and ventilation, and the energy efficiency of the building envelope. As a summary, the identified environmental impacts of different facade types can be denoted in Table 2.

2.2.6. Impacts of Climate Change on Facade Building Materials

Thus, as moisture and temperature variations due to climate change can affect facade building materials to expand and contract, resulting in cracking, deformations, degradation and other types of damage, this can lead to increased maintenance requirements because property owners might have to replace or fix defective facade building materials more often [64]. This can lead to decreased material functionality and durability, compromising the overall robustness of the building facade [27]. As a summary, the identified climate change impacts on facade building materials from the different existing literature can be denoted as in Table 3.

2.3. Knowledge Gap

This study adopts a multidisciplinary approach by looking at the interactions between climate change, facade building materials, and the OHS of facade maintenance workers. To provide a thorough understanding of the topic, it incorporates knowledge from the domains of climate science, building materials science, and OHS. While there is already research on the effects of climate change on buildings, this study focuses especially on facade building materials. Facades are the outer walls of buildings that are exposed to a variety of weather conditions, leaving them vulnerable to the effects of climate change. This study focuses on how climate change affects the functionality, durability, as well as degradation of facade building materials. Moreover, this study analyses the possible OHS issues for facade maintenance employees in addition to the physical effects of climate change on facade building materials. The effect of climate change on facade materials, which results in greater degradation or damage, may expose these personnel to increased hazards, affecting their working conditions, safety protocols, and protective measures.

This study seeks to give practical implications for building architects, designers, engineers, facility managers, and policymakers for mitigating the effects of climate change on facade building materials and improving the OHS of facade maintenance employees. The research findings can be used to generate recommendations and specifications for planning, building, and maintaining facades in a changing environment. As climate change is a significant global concern, investigating its effects on facade construction materials and related OHS risks is urgent and pertinent. This research can help us understand how climate change impacts the built environment as well as worker health and safety, and it can help guide decision-making and formulation of policies within the context of building planning, building, and maintenance.

Overall, the uniqueness of this study stems from its multidisciplinary approach, emphasis on facade construction materials, assessment of OHS hazards, practical applications, and timeliness and appropriateness in the overall picture of climate change impacts.

3. Materials and Methods

The research process which was used in this study to achieve formulated aim and objectives is denoted in Figure 1.

3.1. Research Approach

The research approach is referred to the blueprints and set of procedures of the research which provide hypothetical assumptions and comprehensive details on data collection and analysis of the overall steps [71]. Thus, the research approach should be selected based on the research design and methods as a research design states appropriate research techniques to help the research method [71]. A qualitative research approach can be identified as a holistic approach that helps researchers to explore the effect of different techniques on research strategies in a natural setting in which case study, phenomenological study, ethnography study, content analysis, and grounded theory study have been identified as the five areas of this approach that have been created from inductive reasoning [72]. Therefore, in this study, a qualitative research strategy was used as the accuracy and authenticity of the collected data are higher in this approach as it is encouraging the participants in the data collection process to provide the actual data by being themselves.

3.2. Data Collection

To fulfil the aim of the study, expert interviews were selected as the primary data collection technique as professional opinions and assumptions related to the research problem can be collected from the experts in the field and expert interviews are economical and less time-consuming when compared with other data collection techniques. Accordingly, 12 industry experts with more than 10 years of experience in facility management and facade maintenance industries participated in these semi-structured expert interviews. The judgmental sampling method was used for the selection of these experts. Out of the experts, 42% of experts are having 10–20 and 20–30 years of experience. However, the other 02 categories, namely, 30–40 and more than 40 years of experience are consisted of 8% of the experts in each category. Ropes are the facade access method of 45% of the selected experts and gondolas are used by 27% of the selected experts. However, the experts who used boom trucks and scaffoldings as the facade access method are the same (14%). The distribution of selected experts according to the facade access method and years of experience can be stated in Figure 2.

To operationalise the research aim, additionally, secondary data were gathered on a variety of topics, including the climate change scenarios and their impacts, facade building materials, facade maintenance, etc., by using a variety of sources, including books, research papers, government reports, conference proceedings, websites, scholarly articles, newspaper articles, periodicals, etc.

3.3. Data Evaluation

Thus, content analysis can be defined as a technique that aids in the generation of correct inferences through the application of visual, written, or verbal data to quantify and describe certain actions [73]. Furthermore, identifying words with prospective interests by completing a word frequency count is the most widely utilised phase in qualitative data content analysis [74].

Thematic content analysis with the NVivo software was used for the qualitative data analysis in this research as the collected data related to the research problem can be analysed systematically in a more reliable manner within a shorter period. Because the inferential quality of the findings can be enhanced by integrating categories with the context of the produced data through content analysis as it helps the summarizing and reduction of the data by identifying various correlation patterns in observed variables. Accordingly, the qualitative data which were gathered through the data collection process of this research were subjected to content analysis.

3.4. Data Validation

The application of accuracy, quality, and appropriateness of research findings into the whole research process or any part of it is referred to as the validation of research findings [75]. Research findings were validated through the perceptions of experts related to the research area.

4. Results

4.1. Facade Building Materials and Maintenance

Thus, as per the responses of the experts, aluminium, block walls, and claddings made up of glass and aluminium, glass, precast concrete, steel, and timber are used in the facades of Sri Lankan buildings. According to the perceptions of the experts, various facade maintenance activities are performed in Sri Lanka, viz. cleaning of glasses, claddings, and precast facade finishing, changing facade’s colours, painting of the external walls, waterproofing of facades, removal, repairing or replacement of panel boards, silicon rectification, conducting periodic inspections, and removing salts, dust and other residuals.

Thus, the chemicals that are applied for the cleaning of glasses and claddings are varied from each other due to the inability to apply heavy chemicals on claddings as those claddings and their applied paints can be damaged from the application of heavy chemicals. Furthermore, the top sole of glasses can be damaged from the application of heavy chemicals on glasses. Therefore, more consideration should be provided in the selection of chemicals for the application on both glasses and claddings and light chemicals should be preferred. Moreover, if claddings have not been maintained for a considerable period, bringing those claddings to the previous state is considerably difficult and, in such situations, both cleaning and painting have to be performed to bring back the claddings near to the previous conditions. Therefore, regular maintenance activities should be performed for the claddings. Accordingly, as a summary, various maintenance activities based on the type of facade material can be stated in Table 4 below.

4.2. Impacts of Climate Change on Facade Building Materials and Adaptation Measures

As a result, climate change has a considerable impact on the built environment, particularly the materials used in building facades. Extreme weather phenomena which include extreme heat waves, droughts, and high rainfall are growing increasingly frequent as the Earth’s climate continues to alter. These changes have the possibility of having an enormous effect on building facades and the materials often used to build them. Thus, extreme weather events, such as severe storms, floods, and heat waves, are putting pressure on building materials to endure changing climate conditions. Thus, as per the findings from the expert interviews, a considerable impact of climate change on the facade building materials can be identified.

Accordingly, concrete and brick expand and contract as temperatures rise causing structural failure and damage to the facade. Furthermore, extreme weather events, such as wind-blown particles or debris, can lead to structural harm to the facade. Rising moisture and humidity are other effects of climate change on facade building materials. As temperature increases, humidity levels rise, allowing mould and mildew to grow on the facade. Furthermore, changes in precipitation can cause water damage to the building’s facade, especially if the structure is not appropriately constructed to withstand runoff. The energy consumption of facades can also be affected by climate change. Buildings may need a greater amount of energy to cool as temperatures continue to rise, resulting in higher energy costs. Accordingly, as a summary, various climate change impacts on facade building materials can be presented in Table 5.

Accordingly, water- or oil-based paints that are capable of withstanding different climatic variations, namely, higher moisture contents and temperature variations or self-cleaning paints with self-cleaning capability can be applied on facade panels. Furthermore, proper glass cleaning activities must be performed to remove fungi, dust, salts, and numerous other residuals on glasses which are created as a result of the deposition of raindrops on glasses, as such creations on glasses have an impact on the aesthetic appearance of the facades. Furthermore, the appropriate waterproof coating should be applied to avoid water infiltration into the interior of buildings through facades. To prevent timber, glass and aluminium facades from moisture absorption and solar heating, architects and developers can integrate climate-responsive elements such as overhangs and shading devices. In addition to the aforementioned operations, the removal, replacement, or repair of facade panel boards is conducted as needed. Penetration of water to the interior of the building from the facades is prevented with the aid of waterproofing applications.

Moreover, necessary attention should be paid to the delivery of appropriate maintenance activities for facade building materials to avoid the occurrence of these kinds of unexpected incidents. As such, based on the study findings an adaptation and mitigation strategy development workflow was developed, as shown in Figure 3.

4.3. OHS Risks on Facade Maintenance Workers by Climate Change Impacts on Facade Building Materials and Adaptation Measures

The below spider diagram in Figure 4 shows an excerpt from the full list of OHS risks for facade maintenance workers from climate change impacts on facade building materials that can be identified at the building-level operation of facade maintenance workers. Thus, a considerable number of OHS risks for facade maintenance employees are caused due to the climate change impacts on facade building materials with the scaffoldings, gondolas, ropes, and boom trucks access maintenance work, and if appropriate safety precautions are not adopted, it will be cause for the occurrence of injuries and even deaths of the employees and people on the ground level.

An excerpt of possible causes and impacts of identified OHS risks for facade maintenance workers that are caused by climate change impacts on facade building materials is shown in Table 6.

Accordingly, during the current study, 75 adaptation measures were proposed to address the identified 15 significant occupational health and safety (OHS) risks exacerbated by climate change impacts on facade building materials. Furthermore, Table 7 shows an excerpt from the full list of climate change adaptation measures that can be adopted at the building level for the safe operation of facade maintenance workers in safe and resilient buildings for the OHS risks caused by the climate change impacts on facade building materials.

Accordingly, employers and workers in the facade maintenance business must be aware of possible OHS concerns linked with the effects of climate change on facade construction materials and implement suitable mitigation measures. Various such adaptation measures, namely, fixing appropriate signage boards and tapes to avoid entering of people to the area of facade maintenance, provision of facilities for emergency communication, inspecting employee’s medical conditions, provision of life insurance for employees, and provision of adequate PPE, namely, safety boots, safety helmets, gloves, face shields, goggles, safety belts, and full-body harness are some of the climate change adaptation measures that are currently practised and can be added to the current list of such measures for the protection of the facade maintenance employees from OHS risks that are generated from the climate change impacts for the facade building materials.

Furthermore, adequate education and training should be provided for the facade maintenance employees on best practices on OHS and facade maintenance with the intention for the provision of safety at heights in the case of facade building materials. This may additionally involve the implementation of safety regulations, and the adaptation of workplace procedures to adapt to changing climate circumstances. Compliance with state OHS legislation and recommendations is critical to ensuring the safety and health of facade maintenance workers amid the effects of climate change. Therefore, the facade maintenance industry as well as the wider building industry can gain considerable advantages by adhering to these measures which will lead to the provision of maintenance activities effectively and efficiently without any hindrances, while safeguarding the safety of its employees.

5. Discussion

Accordingly, climate change is predicted to have worse consequences for the built environment, including building materials [26]. Thus, changing climate trends are attributed to high humidity levels, temperature variations, and weather extremes such as floods and storms, all of which can impact the durability and life expectancy of facade building materials [26]. Therefore, architects and designers must take into account the effects of climate change on facade materials when designing new buildings or retrofitting existing ones. Because choosing materials that are resistant to temperature variation, humidity, wind pressure, and UV radiation can facilitate that building persists structurally sound and visually appealing over time which in return will also help for the safe performance of facade maintenance activities by workers.

Furthermore, 34% of the defects of facades are due to design errors, 24% of the defects of facades are due to the unsuitability of facade materials, 19% of the defects of facades are due to construction errors, 16% of the defects of facades are due to the climate conditions, and 7% of the defects of facades are due to the maintenance malpractices [76]. Accordingly, facades are subjected to various climate change impacts, namely, rainfall, UV rays emission, extremes of heat, etc. [76]. As per the experts, climate change may also exacerbate existing building material issues, such as the expansion and contraction of materials due to temperature changes, which can lead to cracking and deformation.

Higher deterioration is one of the most considerable effects of climate change on facade building materials. However, it is essential to differentiate the climate change impacts from the ageing impacts of facade building materials. Because climate change effects and ageing effects on facade building materials represent two independent but connected issues. While the effects of climate change might hasten the process of ageing of facade building materials, these are not the same. The effects of climate change on facades are external variables which could contribute to facade building material ageing and worsen deterioration mechanisms [77]. Thus, consequences of changing climatic conditions, which include higher temperatures, moisture, solar radiation, and adverse weather conditions, upon the durability and performance of facade construction materials are referred to as climate change impacts. The natural deterioration and degradation of materials with time owing to numerous causes such as being exposed to ambient elements, wear and strain, and chemical interactions are referred to as the ageing of facade construction materials. Climate change effects are external variables that might hasten the deterioration of facade materials, whereas ageing is a natural process which happens with time irrespective of changes in the climate. Regardless of the absence of severe climate change, facade materials can age; however, climate change can amplify the impacts of ageing and contribute to faster material deterioration.

One of the most significant impacts of climate change on facade building materials is the increasing temperature fluctuations [78]. Severe heating and cooling conditions can affect materials to expand and contract resulting in cracking, and warping, as well as other types of damage and prolonged exposure to high temperatures can induce materials to deteriorate and diminish, minimizing their life expectancy [78]. This is especially critical for organic materials such as timber as well as plastics, which are more especially vulnerable to thermal decomposition. Materials of high thermal properties, such as metals, on the other hand, can be affected by temperature changes. For example, metals can discover high-temperature fatigue, which can lead to corrosion and other types of damage [79]. This will also cause the occurrence of various unexpected OHS risks for facade maintenance workers leading them to injuries and even deaths.

Climate change is also causing changes in precipitation patterns, which can lead to increased moisture and humidity levels [80]. Moreover, high rates of humidity could indeed affect facade building materials to decompose, corrosion, and discolouration, resulting in structural destruction and health consequences [80]. According to the experts, facade building materials, namely, brick, concrete, and masonry are highly susceptible to water penetration, which can occur cracking, erosion, discolouration, structural damage, and decay over time. Moreover, some timber and metals may be susceptible to corrosion in various climatic conditions.

Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and storms, can generate high wind loads on building facades [81]. Accordingly, it can cause facade materials to deteriorate, especially those not designed to withstand high wind loads [81]. For example, lightweight materials, such as metal cladding and glass, are highly susceptible to wind loads and may require additional support to prevent damage. Furthermore, changes in wind patterns occurring by climate change can cause problems with wind-driven rain and humidity penetration, exacerbating humidity problems. As climate change affects the amount of UV radiation that materials are exposed to, UV radiation can cause fading and discolouration of materials, especially those that are not capable of withstanding prolonged exposure to sunlight. This is especially important for facade materials such as plastics, paints, and coatings [82]. Thus, these impacts are capable of posing significant hazards to facade maintenance employees including physical harm, health concerns from exposure to hazardous substances or contaminated water, along with other hazards linked with poor weather events.

Therefore, building landlords and maintenance experts are launching innovative strategies for facade maintenance which incorporate the unique difficulties caused by climate change in order to address these challenges [83]. Thus, various strategies can be used to mitigate or minimise the climate change impacts on facade building materials. These could involve the implementation of more durable materials, upgraded weatherisation and insulation methods, as well as the creation of sophisticated coatings and other safety precautions to minimise the effects of humidity, UV radiation, as well as other environmental exposures [83]. The use of materials that are more tolerant of humidity and temperature fluctuations, such as composite materials or highly specialised coatings, is one approach [26]. Another method is to design buildings with improved ventilation and insulation systems in order to minimise the effects of moisture and temperature variations on building materials [84]. This encompasses the utilisation of low-embodied carbon materials such as timber, bamboo, and recyclables [84]. Thus, the use of such materials can assist in lowering not only the impact of climate change on the built environment but also carbon emissions. In addition, the experts stated that ongoing maintenance activities can help to prevent climate change issues and made sure that buildings work more efficiently and effectively and safely for occupants. Furthermore, as a response to climate change, utilizing sustainable building materials is becoming increasingly important.

As per the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the risks to facade maintenance employees include falls from great heights, exposure to hazardous substances, and electric shocks [85]. Moreover, the destruction of facades caused by climate change can aggravate these dangers [85]. In addition, the frequent occurrence of hurricanes and windstorms, for example, could indeed affect facades to also be loose or damaged, raising the likelihood of falls for workers who work at heights [85]. Furthermore, intense temperatures and torrential rain can deteriorate or degrade substances such as concrete and masonry, raising the probability of destruction or falling debris while increasing the OHS risk of facade maintenance workers [85]. Accordingly, as per the experts, a considerable number of risks are generated for the facade maintenance workers due to the climate change impacts on facade building materials. These OHS risks are capable of causing injuries and even deaths for the facade maintenance workers, building occupants as well the surrounding people and property.

In summary, the climate change impact on facade building materials is an important consideration for the built environment. Accordingly, in the face of changing climate patterns, it is essential to take into account the durability and sustainability of building materials. It is effective in reducing the impact of climate change on facade building materials by using materials that are resilient to humidity and temperature variances, improving building ventilation and insulation systems, and implementing sustainable building practices. Thus, appropriate risk management approaches can assist in minimizing threats from climate change impacts on facade building materials while guaranteeing worker safety. This could include performing regular risk assessments, incorporating rigid safety precautions for continuing to work with hazardous materials, and providing workers with continuous education, assistance, and training.

6. Conclusions

This study has investigated the effects of climate change on facade building materials, as well as the accompanying OHS issues for workers in facade maintenance. Climate change, alongside its altered climate trends such as rising temperature and sustained UV radiation exposure and advancing severity of extreme weather conditions including storms, heatwaves, as well as heavy rainfall, has the capability of impairing the durability, functionality, and maintenance and causing physical damage including fractures, erosion, and dislocation of facade building materials such as paint, coatings, sealants, as well as adhesives, potentially increasing the risks for employees who perform facade maintenance activities. In addition, variations in precipitation patterns and increasing levels of humidity can cause moisture-related difficulties including mould growth and decay, which can endanger workers’ health and compromise the integrity of facade materials.

Climate change has a significant impact on facade building materials, and architects and designers must consider these impacts when selecting materials for new buildings or retrofitting existing ones. Building-level transformation controls that can be executed to make buildings safer and more resilient should be given special consideration. In establishing such adaptation strategies, the case of facade maintenance was chosen because of the noteworthy impacts faced by facade building materials as facade maintenance work has grown increasingly challenging because of the establishment of advanced facades using advanced technologies, and as climate change has been identified as one of the significant contributors to the facade building materials. Because, according to predictions, the world is facing unexpected risks from climatic changes at an ever-increasing rate. As a result, appropriate practice is required. As a facade is a crucial building element that significantly influences building performance, choosing appropriate adaptation to climate change measures will be beneficial in order to optimally perform facade maintenance tasks without any hindrances. Furthermore, these measures will pave the way for facade maintenance employees to be protected from unanticipated accidents and other difficulties caused by climate change. As a result, the findings of this study will provide immensely valuable aspects for the advancement of the FM sector. There is a growing body of research on this topic, and further studies are needed to understand the long-term impacts of climate change on building materials. Therefore, while the current study is from Sri Lanka, the findings can help to develop climate change adaptation measures in FM industries in other tropical countries.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, A.S.A. and S.C.; formal analysis, R.S.A. and S.C.; investigation, A.S.A.; methodology, R.S.A.; project administration, A.S.A.; supervision, A.S.A.; validation, S.C.; writing—original draft preparation, R.S.A.; writing—review and editing, A.S.A. and S.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article due to qualitative nature of collected data.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Figures and Tables

Figure 1. Research process.

Figure 2. Demographics of selected experts: (i) industry experience years, (ii) facade access method.

Figure 3. Flow diagram for analysing the adaptation and mitigation strategies for the facade for climate change impacts.

Figure 4. Climate change impacted OHS risks from facade building materials through the scaffoldings, gondolas, ropes, and boom trucks facade access method.

Table 1

Facade building materials.

Facade Building Material	Description
Brick Facade	They are relatively economical and used in both commercial and residential buildings.
Glass Facade	Natural light, cold air, and heat are not allowed in the building through these facades, and they are mostly used in commercial buildings.
Concrete Facade	Precast concrete panels with various shapes, textures, colours, and finishes are used for the facade construction.
Stone Facade	The most enduring facades can be constructed due to the higher compressive strength of the used stones. Various factors, namely, colour, surface finish, texture and pattern, and durability of the stone should be considered when selecting the appropriate stone.
Wooden Facade	The intended purposes of the facades can be fulfilled by using properly treated various kinds of wood with unique features and they are mostly used in residential and any other large buildings.
Metal Facade	Extensive designs can be obtained by integrating various materials to fulfil the intended purposes. Stainless steel can be considered as an example. Stainless steel facades are capable of providing high-quality and efficient facades for buildings that require a well-designed maintenance system.

Source: [36].

Table 2

Environmental impacts of different facade types.

Facade Type	Environmental Impact of Facade Building Materials	References
Brick Facade	Brick facades are consuming a low amount of energy for both cooling and heating. Low emissions of carbon can be identified from manufacturing.	[53,54,55]
Glass Facade	Glass facades are famous due to their aesthetically pleasing appearance and ability to optimise natural light. They can, however, result in increased energy usage due to the gain of heat in the summer as well as the loss of heat in the winter. As a result, emissions of greenhouse gases and costs for energy may rise.	[56,57,58]
Concrete Facade	Concrete facades are long-lasting and easy to maintain, but the manufacturing of cement, the major ingredient in concrete, contributes significantly to emissions of greenhouse gases. Furthermore, because concrete acts as a poor insulator, it may outcome in greater energy use.	[59]
Stone Facade	Although stone facades are long-lasting and low maintenance, the manufacturing and shipping of natural stone can produce substantial amounts of carbon dioxide. Furthermore, because the stone is a poor insulator, buildings with stone facade may necessitate a greater amount of energy for heating and cooling.	[60,61]
Wooden Facade	A low amount of energy usage can be identified in the production process. Low carbon emissions are caused by the wooden facade. These facades consist of strong thermal insulation.	[62]
Metal Facade	Metal facades can be created out of recyclable materials, lowering their impact on the environment. Metal, on the other hand, may function as a poor insulator, and the process of production can result in large greenhouse gas emissions.	[63]

Table 3

Impacts of climate change on facade building materials.

Facade Building Material	Climate Change Impact on Facade Building Materials	Climate Change Parameters	References
Brick Facade	Higher moisture content absorption in bricks, weakening their underlying strength and causing cracking can be caused.	Moisture and precipitation variations	[26]
	Erosion or deterioration of brick facade is caused.	Extreme weather conditions, such as severe rain or storms	[65]
	The likelihood of freeze–thaw cycles, in which water trapped by bricks freezes is increased and eventually, the development of cracks and damage is also caused.	Temperature variations	[66]
Glass Facade	Climate change can have an impact on glass facades due to increased radiation from the sun and temperature. Increased temperatures and increased sunlight can cause more solar heat uptake, resulting in higher cooling demands and consumption of energy for climate management inside the building. Increased UV radiation from climate change may lead to fading or discolouration of the glass facade.	Temperature variations and solar radiation	[67,68]
Concrete Facade	Temperature increases are capable of accelerating the carbonation process in concrete, resulting in rapid degradation and poorer durability. Increased temperatures also result in higher drying shrinkage in concrete, which can lead to cracks and poor structural integrity.	Temperature variations	[26]
	Extreme weather conditions, including heatwaves or droughts, are capable of accelerating the carbonation process in concrete, resulting in rapid degradation and poorer durability.	Extreme weather conditions, such as heatwaves or droughts	[65]
	Rising sea levels caused by climate change can further increase saltwater exposure and corrosion of concrete facades in areas near the coast.	Rising sea levels	[69]
Stone Facade	An increase in precipitation and moisture can hasten the weathering of stone facade, causing erosion, staining, and numerous other kinds of degradation.	Precipitation variations	[70]
	Freeze–thaw cycles can additionally harm stone facade, particularly in areas with extreme temperature variations.	Temperature variations	[66]
	Increased air pollution caused by climate change may accelerate the deterioration of stone facades because pollutants can interact with stone surfaces, causing discolouration as well as corrosion.	Air pollution variation	[26]
Wooden Facade	Increased humidity and precipitation are capable of causing the wood to swell, bend, and rot, resulting in reduced durability and structural strength. Variations in patterns of precipitation can additionally affect the inherent durability of wood, hence decreasing its function as a facade material.	Moisture and precipitation variations	[26,52]
	Rising temperatures might raise the danger of infestations of insects and fungal degradation in timber facade.	Temperature variations	[66]
Metal Facade	Rising precipitation and moisture can hasten metal corrosion, resulting in rust and poor structural performance.	Moisture and precipitation variations	[26]
	Extreme weather occurrences, such as storms or hailstorms, are also capable of causing physical harm to metal facade, resulting in scratches, dents, and various other different kinds of deterioration.	Extreme weather occurrences, such as storms or hailstorms	[65]
	The rise in sea levels can further boost the likelihood of corrosion of metal facade in coastal locations owing to saltwater exposure.	Rising sea levels	[69]

Table 4

Maintenance activities based on the type of facade material.

Type of Facade Building Material	Maintenance Activity	Equipment	Evidence
Aluminium	Cleaning and repair of damaged surfaces on facades should only be carried out by well-trained technicians. Removal of surface pollutants regularly to maintain the building’s aesthetic appearance. Waterproofing should be assured. Anticorrosive paints should be applied.	Set of vipers High-pressure water gun	[EI-2, EI-4, EI-10]
Glass	The facade cleaning and repairing of surface damages must only be performed by well-trained technicians. Removal of surface pollutants should be performed in a continuous cycle to maintain the aesthetic appearance of the building. Waterproofing should be assured. Sealers should not be used for cleaning activities. Acids and alkalis should be selected based on the type of glass. Removal of damaged panels and replacement with new panels without spreading the damage to the other panels with the help of expansion joints should be performed. Cleaning of glasses should be performed periodically by using a high-pressure gun.	Set of vipers High-pressure water gun	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-3, EI-5, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-10, EI-11, EI-12]
Precast Concrete	Removal of surface pollutants should be performed in a continuous cycle to maintain the aesthetic appearance of the building. Rectification of silicon which has been used to fill the space between two precast panel boards in the façade in the previous month before the beginning of the rainy season. Inspection of the condition of silicon annually and doing the required maintenance activities if damages are found. Silane sealers can be used for cleaning activities. Inspections on joint sealants should be performed to assure that the water penetration to the substructure has not happened which causes premature failure. External wall painting every 5 years with the aid of a durable paint with a warranty which is lasted for about 5 years. Repairing or grouting of surface damages should be performed by well-trained technicians. Cleaning the prfaçadefacade should be performed once every three years using a high-pressure gun (less/zero maintenance). Cutting or doing any other applications on façadeecast facade should be performed once every five years or ten years. Removal of damaged panels and replacement with new panels without spreading the damage to the other panels with the help of expansion joints should be performed.	Set of vipers High-pressure water gun	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-3, EI-5, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8]
Steel	These facades must only be cleaned by well-trained technicians. Removal of surface pollutants should be performed in a continuous cycle to maintain the aesthetic appearance of the building. Acids and sealers should not be used for cleaning activities. Application of anticorrosive paints for metal facades should be performed. Inspections on joint sealants should be performed to assure that the water penetration to the substructure has not happened which causes premature failure. Removal of damaged panels and replacement with new panels without spreading the damage to the other panels with the help of expansion joints should be performed.	Set of vipers High-pressure water gun	[EI-2, EI-3, EI-4, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-10]
Timber	These facades must only be cleaned by well-trained technicians. Removal of damaged panels and replacement with new panels without spreading the damage to the other panels with the help of expansion joints should be performed. Removal of surface pollutants should be performed in a continuous cycle to maintain the aesthetic appearance of the building. Acids and sealers should not be used for cleaning activities. Inspections on joint sealants should be performed to assure that the water penetration to the substructure has not happened which causes premature failure.	Set of vipers High-pressure water gun	[EI-2, EI-3, EI-6 EI-10, EI-11, EI-12]

Note that EI is referred to as Expert Interview.

Table 5

Climate change impacts on facade building materials.

Type of Facade Building Material	Climate Change Impacts	Evidence
Aluminium	Temperature variations are considerably impacted for this facade material causing structural damages and sealant deterioration from contraction and expansion. An increase in corrosion can be happened due to variations in precipitation patterns. Physical damages can happen as an outcome of extreme weather conditions, namely, storms, hurricanes, and extreme rainfalls. Deterioration and discolouration of coatings and finishes can be happened due to higher exposure to UV radiation.	[EI-2, EI-4, EI-10]
Glass	Temperature variations are considerably impacted for this façade material causing structural damages and sealant deterioration from contraction and expansion. Climate change can considerably impact the energy efficiency of this façadefacade material. Energy cost and consumption can be increased due to temperature variations as more energy is required for cooling in higher temperatures. Physical damages can happen as an outcome of extreme weather conditions, namely, storms, hurricanes, and extreme rainfalls. Discolouration of coatings and glasses can be happened due to higher exposure to UV radiation.	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-3, EI-5, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-10, EI-11, EI-12]
Precast Concrete	Expanding and contracting of these materials is occurred due to temperature variations causing cracks, sealant deterioration and other physical failures. If adequate waterproofing and maintenance activities have not been performed, a higher exposure to damage from moisture can also be identified. Growth of algae can be happened due to higher moisture content causing deterioration and discolouration. Energy cost and consumption can be increased due to temperature variations as more energy is required for cooling in higher temperatures. Physical damages can happen as an outcome of extreme weather conditions, namely, storms, hurricanes, and extreme rainfalls.	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-3, EI-5, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8]
Steel	Temperature variations can considerably impact this façade material causing damage from contraction and expansion. An increase in corrosion can be happened due to variations in precipitation patterns. Physical damages can happen as an outcome of extreme weather conditions, namely, storms, hurricanes, and extreme rainfalls. Deterioration and discolouration of coatings and finishes can be happened due to higher exposure to UV radiation.	[EI-2, EI-3, EI-4, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-10]
Timber	These facades can be considerably impacted by variations in precipitation patterns as moisture can build up in their surfaces causing decaying, structural damages, and impacting visual appearance. Physical damages can happen as an outcome of extreme weather conditions, namely, storms, hurricanes, and extreme rainfalls. Structural damages can be happened from the growth of insects on the surface due to the creation of a favourable environment for the growth of such animals from climate change.	[EI-2, EI-3, EI-6 EI-10, EI-11, EI-12]

Note that EI is referred to as Expert Interview.

Table 6

Possible causes and impacts of identified OHS risks caused by climate change impact on facade building materials through the scaffoldings, gondolas, ropes, and boom trucks facade access method.

OHS Risks on Facade Maintenance Workers by Climate Change Impacts on Facade Building Materials	Possible Causes and Impacts	Evidence
Risks by the falling of objects	Facade materials such as masonry or concrete can be subjected to long-term exposure to moisture in locations where climate change causes greater precipitation, which is capable of resulting in deterioration, erosion, or other kinds of destruction that happen over time and if the facade materials are not properly maintained, this could weaken them and raise the possibility of falling objects causing various risks for facade maintenance workers. Extreme weather phenomena such as hurricanes, storms, and strong winds may become more frequent and violent as a result of climate change which can damage facade materials such as glass, cladding, or other components, as well as increase the possibility of falling objects if the facade is not intended or built to endure such harsh weather conditions causing various risks for facade maintenance workers. Temperature patterns can vary as a result of climate change, including increasing temperatures which will lead to the contraction or expansion of metal and plastic facade materials with temperature variations, which might lead to structural concerns, gaps, or other types of damage which might compromise the materials’ stability and represent a risk of falling objects causing various risks for facade maintenance workers. Sea level rise caused by climate change can raise exposure to saltwater in coastal locations, accelerating corrosion and depreciation of facade materials, particularly metals which can cause the facade materials to deteriorate and increase the likelihood of objects falling from the structure causing various risks for facade maintenance workers.	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-3, EI-4, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-9, EI-10, EI-12]
Risks by the falling of workers due to facade building materials damages	Excessive degradation or deterioration of facade materials due to climate change can outcome in compromised integrity of the structure, accelerating the likelihood of falls for workers performing maintenance who approach facades at heights. Extreme weather conditions, such as storms or heavy rain, can worsen this by damaging facade materials.	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-4, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-9, EI-10, EI-11, EI-12]
Risks of employees being fainted, sick, injured (e.g., bruises and cuts) or death due to the falling of facade components due to deterioration	Excessive degradation or deterioration of facade materials due to climate change can cause injuries for workers performing maintenance who approach facades at heights. Extreme weather conditions, such as storms or heavy rain, can worsen this by damaging facade materials. The effects of climate change on facade building materials, including increased deterioration or damage, can result in the discharge of hazardous substances such as asbestos, lead, or mould, which could create health hazards for employees who come into exposure to them when maintenance operations (e.g., repairs, cleaning).	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-3, EI-4, EI-5, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-9, EI-10, EI-11, EI-12]
Risks by cracks in facades	Excessive degradation or deterioration of facade materials due to climate change can cause cracks in facades leading to various hazards for facade maintenance employees. Extreme weather conditions, such as storms or heavy rain, can worsen this by damaging facade materials.	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-3, EI-4, EI-5, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-9, EI-10, EI-11, EI-12
Risks by facades becoming slippery	Extreme weather conditions, such as storms or heavy rain, can increase the absorption of water into facade building materials causing injuries for facade maintenance workers from slipperiness.	EI-1, EI-2, EI-4, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-9, EI-10, EI-12]
Risks by cutting ropes from sharp edges and loosening nails in facades	Excessive degradation or deterioration of facade materials due to climate change can cause sharp edges in facades and loosen the nails fixed to them causing various injuries for facade maintenance workers. Extreme weather conditions, such as storms or heavy rain, can worsen this by damaging facade materials.	[EI-1, EI-6, EI-4, EI-7, EI-12]
Risks by contact with or falling of dust and other particles to the eyes or skin of workers	The effects of climate change on facade building materials, including increased deterioration or damage, can result in the discharge of hazardous substances such as asbestos, lead, or mould, which could create health hazards for employees who come into exposure to them when maintenance operations (e.g., repairs, cleaning).	[EI-1, EI-6, EI-4, EI-7, EI-12]

Note that EI is referred to as Expert Interview.

Table 7

Adaptation measures for OHS risks caused by climate change impact on facade building materials through the scaffoldings, gondolas, ropes, and boom trucks facade access method.

OHS Risks	Adaptation Measures	Evidence
Risks by the falling of objects	Inspecting facades before doing maintenance activities and performing appropriate adjustments Performing appropriate routine and preventive maintenance activities for the facade building materials Fixing tapes and signage boards to notify people about the work at heights and restrict them from coming near the maintenance area Fixing safety nets Provision of PPE, namely, safety helmets, safety boots, face shields, goggles, masks, safety belts, full-body harness kits with 2 safety devices (defender and backup), and safety gloves	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-3, EI-4, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-9, EI-10, EI-12]
Risks by the falling of workers due to facade building materials damages	Inspecting the condition of facades before the beginning of facade maintenance Performing appropriate routine and preventive maintenance activities for the facade building materials Fixing safety nets and glass shackles Provision of personal protective equipment (PPE), namely, safety helmets, safety boots, face shields, goggles, masks, safety belts, full-body harness kits with 2 safety devices (defender and backup), and safety gloves	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-4, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-9, EI-10, EI-11, EI-12]
Risks of employees being fainted, sick, injured (e.g., bruises and cuts) or death due to the falling of façade components due to deterioration	Inspecting the condition of facades before the beginnifaçadefacade maintenance Performing appropriate routine and preventive maintenance activities fofaçadefacade building materials Provision of PPE, namely, safety helmets, safety boots, face shields, safety belts, full-body harness kits, and safety gloves Regularly checking the medical condition of workers by taking employees to medical check-ups every 6 months and providing life insurance andfaçadellowing for facade maintenance, if employees are not physically fit Providing keypad mobile phones or walkie-talkies to communicate in emergencies Regularly checking the medical condition of workers by taking employees to medical check-ups every 6 months Keeping employees in standby mode to rescue employees in ropes in emergencies	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-3, EI-4, EI-5, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-9, EI-10, EI-11, EI-12]
Risks by cracks in facades	Inspecting the condition of facades before the beginning of façade maintenance Performing appropriate routine and preventive maintenance activities for the façadefacade building materials Provision of PPE, namely, safety helmets, safety boots, face shields, safety belts, full-body harness kits, and safety gloves	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-3, EI-4, EI-5, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-9, EI-10, EI-11, EI-12]
Risks by facades becoming slippery	Inspecting the condition of facades before the beginning of façade maintenance Performing appropriate routine and preventive maintenance activities for the façadefacade building materials Provision of PPE, namely, safety helmets, safety boots, face shields, goggles, masks, safety belts, full-body harness kits with 2 safety devices (defender and backup), and safety gloves	[EI-1, EI-2, EI-4, EI-6, EI-7, EI-8, EI-9, EI-10, EI-12]
Risks by cutting ropes from sharp edges and loosening nails in facades	Inspecting the condition of facades before the beginning of facade maintenance Performing appropriate routine and preventive maintenance activities for the facade building materials Provision of PPE, namely, safety helmets, safety boots, face shields, goggles, masks, safety belts, full-body harness kits with 2 safety devices (defender and backup), and safety gloves	[EI-1, EI-6, EI-4, EI-7, EI-12]
Risks by contact with or falling of dust and other particles to the eyes or skin of workers	Provision of PPE, namely, safety helmets, safety boots, face shields, goggles, masks, safety belts, full-body harness kits with 2 safety devices (defender and backup), and safety gloves Performing appropriate routine and preventive maintenance activities for the facade building materials	[EI-1, EI-6, EI-4, EI-7, EI-12]

Note that EI is referred to as Expert Interview.

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