1. Introduction
The pacific whiteleg shrimp Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei is one of the most important penaeid species in the aquaculture and fishing industry. The natural range of wild P. vannamei populations is the pacific coast of Latin America, from northern Peru to northern Mexico. However, P. vannamei has been introduced into most of the shrimp-producing countries around the world, partly due to the domestication and availability of specific pathogen-free (SPF) stocks [1,2,3]. The term SPF means “healthy”, i.e., conditionally free of a list of known shrimp pathogens of the office of international epizootics (OIE), but not necessarily resistant and/or tolerant to any of the pathogens [3]. The first SPF P. vannamei was produced in Hawaii by the breeding program of the United States Marine Shrimp Farming Program (USMSFP) consortium and was maintained at the Oceanic Institute in Hawaii, USA [1,2]. Recently, the shrimp genome from the Kona line of the USMSFP was partially sequenced for a total length of ~470 Mb [1], from which numerous transposable elements, integrated viruses, and simple sequence repeats (SSRs) have been categorized [4] and deposited in Repbase [5]. Kona line is also known as research line, high-growth line, and/or Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV)-susceptible line, and was distributed to private commercial breeding companies [1]. In parallel, the genome of a male P. vannamei farmed in China (breed Kehai No. 1) was completely sequenced and assembled to be 1.66 Gb in size [6]. Although the expected genome size of P. vannamei ranges from 2.45 to 2.89 Gb [1], this 1.66 Gb scaffold sequence, in which 25,596 protein-coding genes were identified, would allow researchers to (a) complete a continuous whole-genome assembly of this highly complex species that contains the highest percentage of SSRs than any other species sequenced so far [1,6], (b) perform more basic epidemiology and evolutionary biology research, and (c) develop treatments and diagnostics tools for diseases of bacterial [1,7] and viral origin [8,9,10].
White spot disease (WSD) is the most devastating infectious shrimp disease. Infected shrimps are characterized by white spots (calcified deposits) on the exoskeleton. The first reported appearances of WSD in penaeid shrimp occurred in China (Fujian) in 1992 [11] and spread globally [10,12,13,14,15] to Taiwan, Korea, and Japan (1993), South East Asian countries (1996), United States (Texas and SC in 1995), India (1998), Latin America (1999), Madagascar, Mozambique and Saudi Arabia (2010–2012), and Australia (2016). The cause of WSD is large, enveloped dsDNA virus called white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) [16,17,18] that infects over 90 arthropod species naturally or experimentally [17,19], such as crayfishes, lobsters, crabs, and others. So far, 14 complete WSSV genomes of different isolates have been stored in GenBank, ranging between 280 Kb and 309 Kb in size, and are predicted to have ~180 open reading frames (ORFs) of 50 amino acids or above [16,18]. Different WSSV genomes share >95.22% overall sequence identity and could cluster in three or more phylogenetic groups [20,21]. In the Genbank database, many shrimp expressed sequence tags (ESTs) have been found showing homology to WSSV, especially when ESTs are from the SPF P. vannamei of the USMSFP breeding program from Hawaii [1]. WSSV fragments have been reported endogenized or integrated into an SPF stock of giant tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) from Thailand [22], showing Mendelian inheritance [23]. A recent study in Kuruma shrimp, Penaeus (Marsupenaeus) japonicus, illustrated that the entry of WSSV into the host cell is via the endocytosis pathway, triggered by the interaction of virion and a transmembrane immunoglobulin receptor, designated as MjpIgR [24]. So far, progress has been made in developing WSSV-resistant P. vannamei lines [25,26], but a lot more work remains ahead to achieve the stabilization of the resistance.
WSSV has long been regarded as the lone virus (type species) of the genus Whispovirus, which is the only genus of the family Nimaviridae [18]. However, this notion is changing with the recent discovery of diverse endogenous WSSV-like nimaviruses [27,28,29,30]. In some crustacean genomes, such as P. monodon (Pm), even two different types of endogenous nimaviruses can be distinguished [28]. The genome scaffolds of these endogenous nimaviruses vary in length from ~190 Kb to ~230 Kb, but none is considered a complete virus genome [28]. According to the phylogeny reported by Kawato et al. [28], family Nimaviridae currently consists of seven major phylogenetic groups (or genus, if diversity qualified), and different groups share less than 60% DNA sequence identity to each other [28]. The representative viruses of the seven groups are WSSV, Chionoecetes opilio bacilliform virus (CoBV), and the five endogenous nimaviruses from Penaeus (Marsupenaeus) japonicus (Mj), Penaeus monodon, Hemigrapsus takanoi, Metapenaeus ensis, Sesarmops intermedium, respectively (Table 1). Comparative analysis showed that 39 WSSV genes could be termed as ancestral/core nimavirus genes since their orthologs were ubiquitously (core) or widely (ancestral) present in the seven Nimaviridae lineages, particularly in the Mj nimavirus, which belongs to the most distant group (Mj-group) to WSSV [28]. These 39 genes include envelope proteins, capsid proteins, DNA polymerase, protein kinase, and some other hypothetical or unknown proteins. In other words, these ancestral/core genes (families) are rarely lost in the course of evolution [31].
From the ~470 Mb genome of the first SPF P. vannamei [1], we previously reconstructed a 279,384 bp long consensus sequence, designated as DNAV-1_LVa, to represent the complete genome of a WSSV-like virus [29,30]. In Repbase [5], DNAV-1_LVa is stored as seven smaller segments (entries): DNAV-1a_LVa to DNAV-1g_LVa. We reported here an updated version of this WSSV-like nimavirus, reconstructed from the high-quality sequence data of P. vannamei Kehai No. 1 genome [6]. This new consensus was designated as Nimav-1_LVa (279,905 bp) to emphasize its upgraded quality over DNAV-1_LVa. With about 65–74% sequence identity to the Mj endogenous nimavirus, Nimav-1_LVa clearly belonged to the Mj-group. In Nimav-1_LVa, 117 protein-coding genes were predicted, including four genes newly demonstrated as nimavirus ancestral/core genes. In addition, four other Nimav-1_LVa genes might be captured host genes for their regulatory roles in the host-pathogen interactions and/or immune response. This complete genome of Nimav-1_LVa might provide a useful source to aid in our understanding of the evolution of virus family Nimaviridae.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Nimav-1_LVa Virus Consensus Reconstruction
The process of reconstructing the consensus of various repetitive families have been described elsewhere [5]. Briefly, RepeatModeler [32] tool was used to initially identify “pre-consensus” sequences in the genome. These “pre-consensus” sequences were used by BlastN to bait out top hit sequences in the genome, from which the consensus sequences were reconstructed again. To extend to the complete length of a given family, a stepwise extension in both directions was performed until the sign of termini appears. The consensus of Nimav-1_LVa is provided in Supplementary File S1.
2.2. Viral Gene Prediction and Visualization
Nimav-1_LVa genes or ORFs were predicted in three steps. First, ORFs with 70 codons or above were predicted. ORFs completely overlapped by other larger ORFs or that largely derived from simple sequences or tandem repeats were discarded. The tandem repeat region was predicted by Tandem Repeat Finder [33] (TRF, Version 4.09) with default parameters. Second, regions consisting of multiple adjacent short ORFs in the same direction were subjected to online FGENESH [34] prediction to check the possibility of exon-containing genes. We chose Apis dorsata (giant honey bee) as the species parameter for FGENESH since the predicted proteins proved more correct than using some other species. Lastly, to further reduce the error in gene prediction, the predicted proteins were subjected to comparative TblastN or BlastP analyses against either the Nimav-1_LVa or the other nimaviruses. By this approach, we corrected a few frameshifts caused by ambiguity in short tandem repeats. Some obvious duplicated partial gene fragments were also discarded. The 117 protein sequences of Nimav-1_LVa are provided in Supplementary File S1. Multiple sequence alignment (MSA) was performed by an online MAFFT server [35] and was visualized in Jalview [36].
2.3. Homology Searches
Protein homology searching (TblastN or BlastP) was performed locally with the Censor tool [37] implemented with Wu-blast (version 2.0) search engine. Protein database searching was conducted by BlastP or PSI-Blast (Position-Specific Iterated Blast) at NCBI (
2.4. Dataset
Nimavirus genomes or assemblies used in this paper for comparative analysis included 3 WSSV genomes (AF332093.3, WSSV-CN; AF369029.2, WSSV-TH; and KT995472.1, WSSV-CN01), Metopaulias depressus (Md, KR820240 to KR820242), and the other 6 genomes listed in Table 1. Except for the 3 WSSV genomes, all other nimaviruses genomes were incomplete. The whole-genome sequences (WGS) of Penaeus monodon isolate Shenzhen (NIUS000000000) and Marsupenaeus (Penaeus) japonicus isolate Guangxi (NIUR010000000) were downloaded from GenBank.
3. Results
3.1. Building the Consensus of Nimav-1_LVa
Using the PacBio sequencing method, we previously conducted a small-scale genome sequencing project on the SPF P. vannamei Kona line of the USMSFP [1]. Around 470 Mb sequences were randomly obtained from the genome. From this data, a 279,384 bp long WSSV-like consensus sequence was reconstructed and was deposited in Repbase [5] under the name DNAV-1_LVa [29]. Due to the high error rate of PacBio sequencing, and the low genome coverage of the data, the sequence quality of DNAV-1_LVa proved prohibitive for a thorough analysis. In this study, we reconstructed this DNAV-1_LVa-like consensus using the high-quality genome sequences of P. vannamei breed Kehai No. 1 variety (GenBank assembly No. ASM378908v1) that were generated by both PacBio and Illumina platforms. We designated the new consensus with a different name: Nimav-1_LVa, to reflect its being a nimavirus and emphasize its superior sequence quality to the original DNAV-1_LVa. Nimav-1_LVa was 279,905 bp long, ~98% identical to DNAV-1_LVa sequence, and showed the same overall structure, but length variations were observed in some tandem repeat regions. The sequence of Nimav-1_LVa is provided in Supplementary File S1.
In the Nimav-1_LVa sequence, except for a ~1.8 Kb region (184,126 to 185,979 nt) and its immediate ~100 bp flanking sequences, the whole Nimav-1_LVa consensus was well-supported by at least three long genomic sequences from different loci (Figure 1A), all >98% identical to the consensus. In the current shrimp Kehai No. 1 genome assembly, this 1.8 Kb sequence occurred only in one contig NW_020871279.1. In another contig NW_020871249.1 from the same genomic locus, this 1.8 Kb region was substituted by a 413-bp unsequenced polyN tract (491,007–491,419 nt). Luckily, this 1.8 Kb region was located within the coding region of the gene g187 (Figure 1A), which encoded in its single, long ORF a 4332 AA protein (187p), showing 56% identity over the whole length to a wsv343-like protein BBD20111.1 (4287 AA) encoded in Mj nimavirus. Thus, this poorly-supported 1.8 Kb region would not seriously affect our subsequent analysis.
In the current 1.66 Gb genome assembly of the shrimp breed Kehai No. 1, a total of 3335 Kb sequences was found to be derived from Nimav-1_LVa: >95% identity to the consensus, and 80% of these sequences showed >98% identity to the consensus (Supplementary Table S1). These data indicated that at least 12 copies (3335/279 = 11.9) of Nimav-1_LVa were integrated into the shrimp genome during the relatively recent past. Among the available endogenous nimaviruses assemblies, M. japonicus (Mj) endogenous nimavirus (BFCD01000001 and AP010878) [28] was the closest relative to Nimav-1_LVa. They shared a 65–74% nucleic acid sequence identity to each other, and both featured low GC-content: 34.6% in Nimav-1_LVa and 32.9% in the Mj endogenous nimavirus. By contrast, all other nimaviruses genomes exhibited significantly high GC-content: 45% in the Pm endogenous nimavirus, 47% in the Ht endogenous nimavirus, 45.4% in the Me endogenous nimavirus, 44.2% in the Si endogenous nimavirus, 44.1% in the Md endogenous nimavirus, 41% in WSSV, and 40% in the Chionoecetes opilio bacilliform virus.
3.2. The Integration Site of Nimav-1_LVa
As shown in Figure 1A, the integration site on the circular virus genome was located between gene g002 and gene g276. Hereafter, the orientation of the linear Nimav-1_LVa was defined as in Figure 1A. In the assembly of shrimp breed Kehai No. 1, a total of 21 genomic loci were juxtaposed with the termini of Nimav-1_LVa: 10 loci at the 5′-end and 11 at the 3′-end. The number of these termini (21) accorded well with the number of the integrated Nimav-1_LVa copies (12), which was deduced from the total length of the viral sequences. Thus, this data implied that the site between g002 and g276 was the only possible recombination site on the virus genome. Moreover, we found all these Nimav-1_LVa copies were flanked by a long tract of (TAACC/GGTTA)n microsatellites (Figure 1B), which were reported as the telomeric sequence in P. vannamei [6,39]. Notably, the (TAACC/GGTTA)n microsatellite region was internally absent in the Nimav-1_LVa consensus, strongly indicating that the integration between Nimav-1_LVa and the host genome happens preferentially, if not exclusively, between one specific virus site and the telomeric microsatellite repeats. However, one caveat must be noted that the Nimav-1_LVa might also integrate into non-telomeric regions, but these viruses had been subsequently eliminated during evolution.
The precise boundary between integrated Nimav-1_LVa and shrimp genome is undetermined yet. The termini of this linear Nimav-1_LVa, 5′-CAG, and ACC-3′, as illustrated in Figure 1, were approximate and tentative. No obvious target site duplications (TSDs) were observed flanking Nimav-LVa. Little is known about the molecular mechanism underlying such integration because we cannot exclude the possibility that circular Nimav-1_LVa could harbor one short tract of variable length of (TAACC/GGTTA)n microsatellites somewhere between g002 and g276. If so, the integration of Nimav-1_LVa would be through the homology-based recombination, which is adopted in the telomere-specific integration of human herpesvirus HHV-6A, HHV-6B [40,41,42], and chicken lymphotropic alphaherpesvirus Marek’s disease virus (MDV) [43,44].
3.3. Nimav-1_LVa Sequences in Other Penaeid Shrimps
To test if Nimav-1_LVa is present in other shrimp species, we blasted the Nimav-1_LVa sequence against the two available whole-genome sequences (WGS) of P. monodon isolate Shenzhen (NIUS000000000, 1.4 Gb) and M. japonicus isolate Guangxi (NIUR010000000, 1.6 Gb). In addition, we performed two similar searches using the Mj-type and the Pm-type endogenous nimaviruses (Table 1). As a result, a substantial amount of homologous sequences, either identical (>99%) or highly homologous (>88%), was detected in the two genomes. The detected homologous viral sequences seemed to scatter throughout the whole virus genome; in some specific locations, even three different versions of viral sequences could be detected. The cumulative lengths of the homologous sequences in each search are listed in Table 2. The varying amounts of the integrated viral sequences might be accounted for by the different magnitudes of infection and different levels of host tolerances to the integration of different viruses. These data suggested that at least three types of nimavirus sequences were integrated into the two shrimp isolates from P. monodon and M. japonicus. The first virus type was obviously the Nimav-1_LVa type (>99% identity). The other two types, given the fairly high sequence identity (>88% or >91%) to the query sequences, could be called Pm-like and Mj-like (Table 2). Putting together, the identification of almost identical Nimav-1_LVa sequence in three species, P. monodon, M. japonicas, and P. vannamei (previous section), highly suggested that Nimav-1_LVa virus or its closest variant is or was a potentially transmissible virus in nature.
3.4. Genes Encoded in Nimav-1_LVa
In the Nimav-1_LVa sequence, a total of 117 protein-coding genes were predicted (Table 3 and Supplementary File S1 for the protein sequences), each with 70 codons or longer. Ninety-seven of the genes were supported by homologous proteins, mostly from other nimaviruses (Table 3). The remaining 20 genes were hypothetical, generally short, with the exception of only two genes (g153 and g234) coding for proteins over 400 residues.
Twenty-eight out of the 117 genes were found homologous to at least one other Nimav-1_LVa gene. Based on their mutual similarity, these genes were clustered into six “paralog families” (PF): PF1 (g002, g006, g008, g009, g010, g011, g141, g143, g146, g161), PF2 (g003, g012, g017, g030, g047, g049), PF3 (g050, g051, g052, g257), PF4 (g172, g173, g276), PF5 (g056, g269, g271), and PF6 (g034 and g139). Notably, it was possible that in some gene families, some shorter genes were just pseudogenes or gene fragments due to partial duplication or to the errors in gene prediction, such as the g002 gene in the PF1 family, the g030 in the PF2 family (Table 3). In the PF3 family, g052 was much longer than the rest of the members, and the homologous region was limited to the N-terminal half region of g052. Nevertheless, for the purposes of documentation, these genes are still enlisted in Table 3.
PF1 was the largest gene family with a total of 10 family members, reflecting its critical roles for the virus. However, the roles of PF1 families were largely unknown: no significant conserved domain was found. In the PF2 family, all six members contained one to three BIR domains (baculoviral inhibition of apoptosis protein repeat, cd00022) (Table 3). In addition, a carboxyl-terminal zinc-finger domain of the RING-HC (C3HC4-type) subclass was present in four PF2 members. The four zinc-finger domains belonged to two subtypes: RING-HC_BIRC2_3_7 (cd16713) in g012 and g017, and RING-HC_BIRC4_8 (cd16714) in g047 and g049 (Table 3). The BIR and RING domain arrangement is also found in a number of well-studied inhibitors of apoptosis (IAP) proteins [45]. As indicated by the acronym BIRC (baculoviral IAP repeat-containing protein) in the zinc-finger subtype name, the other IAP proteins include BIRC2 (also known as c-IAP1, cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1), BIRC3 (c-IAP2), BIRC7 (Livin), BIRC4 (XIAP, X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein), and BIRC8 (ILP-2, IAP-like protein 2). It is known that these IAP proteins act as ubiquitin E3 ligases to mediate the ubiquitination of the substrates involved in apoptosis, nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) signaling, and oncogenesis [46]. BIRC3 influences ubiquitin-dependent pathways that modulate innate immune signaling by activation of NF-kappaB, and BIRC4, 7, 8 are all implicated in the effect of anti-apoptosis [45,46,47].
One striking feature of Nimav-1_LVa was that exon-intron structures are found in nine genes, including five PF2 family genes (g003, g012, g017, g047, and g049), g022, g046 (CHH), g155 (innexin), and g158 (BAX inhibitor 1-like) (Table 3). While the exons in g022 have yet to be confirmed by other independent resources, the existence of exons seemed to be positively confirmed for the other eight genes by their homologs from GenBank. Notably, no WSSV gene is found to be spliced so far [18].
It has been known that 39 WSSV genes and their homologs are commonly present in nimaviruses, in particular, Mj-type nimavirus and WSSV [28], and are so-called nimavirus ancestral/core genes. However, because of the incompleteness of the current scaffold of the Mj-type nimavirus genome (~220 Kb, Table 1), this ancestral/core gene set could be incomplete. Given the close relationship between Nimav-1_LVa and M. japonicus (Mj) nimavirus, both under the Mj-group [28], we examined the possible homologous genes between Nimav-1_LVa and WSSV, aiming at additional Nimav-1_LVa genes that could be included into the ancestral/core gene set.
As a result, 44 Nimav-1_LVa genes were found homologous to 43 WSSV genes. These paired homologous genes are indicated with “wsvNNN-like” in the “Comment” column in Table 3. The WSSV genes here referred to those annotated for the genome of the WSSV CN strain (AF332093.3). Of the 44 Nimav-1_LVa genes, 39 genes proved to be the orthologs of the known 39 ancestral/core genes [28], the other five newly-included genes were g140 (wsv112-like), g217 (wsv308-like), g225 (wsv226-like), g034 (wsv206-like), and g139 (wsv206-like). The last two genes were two paralogs belonging to the PF6 gene family. These five newly identified proteins showed marginal similarity (<30% amino acids identity), or no detectable similarity, to their WSSV counterparts by BlastP; however, their orthology was well-supported in the multiple sequences alignment (MSA) (Figure 2 and Supplementary Figures S1–S3). For example, although the g217-encoded protein (217p) showed no detectable similarity with the wsv308 protein, also called VP51, a nucleocapsid protein [48], it did show trace similarity (<18% identity) with another S. intermedium (Si) nimavirus protein GBG35584.1, which was annotated as a wsv308-like protein [28]. When 217p, GBG35584.1, wsv308, and some other wsv308-like proteins were included in the multiple sequence alignment, the orthology was clearly revealed by the many highly-conserved residues/blocks throughout the whole length (Figure 2). Similarly, we concluded that g140 was a wsv112-like dUTPase enzyme (Supplementary Figure S1); g225 was wsv226-like (Supplementary Figure S2); and the two PF6 members, g034 and g139, as well as their homologs in Mj nimavirus (GBG35398.1 and GBG35402.1), were indeed homologs of wsv206 (Supplementary Figure S3). Admittedly, Kawato et al. did acknowledge that GBG35398.1 and GBG35402.1 were likely homologs of wsv206, but this uncertainty was unsolved in the paper [28]. Notably, the wsv206-like protein GBG35398.1 contains a macro domain (cl00019, E-Value = 3.00076 × 10−5), which is a high-affinity ADP-ribose binding module.
Besides the 44 ancestral/core genes, eight Nimav-1_LVa genes were found with equivalents in the non-WSSV and non-Mj-group nimaviruses. The absence of WSSV homologs for these genes could be explained by the gene loss in WSSV. The eight genes included g115, g206, and the six inhibitors of apoptosis from the PF2 family. The counterparts of g115 (SCV_095, GAV93215.1) and g206 (SCV_028, GAV93152.1) were encoded in CoBV. The BIR domain in the PF2 family members was absent in WSSV proteins, but it was encoded in one Md nimavirus protein (AKS10635.1), one CoBV protein (GAV93213.1), and one Ht nimavirus protein (GBG35369.1).
The remaining 45 homolog-supported genes could only find their homologs from the Mj-type nimavirus or the non-redundant (nr) protein database of NCBI. These 45 genes and the 20 hypothetical genes were tentatively called “Mj-group-specific” genes (indicated in bold font, Table 3). Theoretically, these “Mj-group-specific” genes comprised three sections: (1) genes that were acquired in the common ancestor of the Mj-group after its split from other nimaviruses, (2) genes whose orthologs have been lost in the evolution of other nimaviruses, (3) genes underwent faster evolutionary rate, thus making it difficult to detect their homologs in other virus groups. Unless more nimavirus genomes are completely assembled, a lot of uncertainty remains in this area.
3.5. Nimav-1_LVa Genes Involved in Host-Pathogen Interaction
Although the molecular functions of a lot of Nimav-1_LVa proteins were unknown, a large number of genes/families seemed connected to roles in host-pathogen interaction and innate immune response. These genes/families included: (1) g103 (heat shock protein, Hsp70), (2) g118 (DnaJ, also called Hsp40), (3) g132 (ubiquitin), (4) the 6 IAPs of the PF2 family, (5) g171 (wsv267-like anti-apoptotic protein), (6) g046 (CHH), (7) g155 (innexin), (8) g158 (BAX inhibitor 1 like), and (9) g227 (semaphorin 1A like).
In the cases of the first four genes/families: g103 (heat shock protein, Hsp70), g118 (Hsp40), g132 (ubiquitin), and the six inhibitors of apoptosis of the PF2 gene family, their involvements in the host-pathogen interaction were well acknowledged. It is well known that apoptosis is a key immune process in the shrimp response to the WSSV invasion [49]. Various heat shock proteins and ubiquitin are also well documented for their functions in host-virus interaction. For example, extracellular Hsp70s have been demonstrated with a number of cytoprotective and immunomodulatory functions, such as stimulators of innate immune responses in the human system [50]. A heat shock protein 70 (Hsc70) was found to inhibit apoptosis induced by WSSV infection in hemocyte shrimp cells [51]. In shrimp P. vannamei, the expression of the Hsp70 gene was also reported altered after the WSSV infection [52,53], and intramuscularly injection of Hsp70 protein could significantly reduce mortality after WSSV infection [54]. As for the Hsp40 gene, its responses to viral infection have been reported in halibut Paralichthys olivaceus [55]. In another study using the WSSV challenged tiger shrimp P. monodon, ubiquitin gene was down-regulated during the first 12 hours, but reversed in the following period [56]. Lastly, a study in red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, listed DnaJ (Hsp40), ubiquitin, and innexin (detailed below) proteins for their possible anti-WSSV roles [57].
The g171 gene is the ortholog of WSSV wsv267. The wsv267 protein, also known as anti-apoptotic protein 4 (APP4) [18], has been shown capable of inhibiting apoptosis by binding with the p20 domain of P. monodon caspase (PmCasp) protein, which can induce apoptosis [58]. There are four anti-apoptotic WSSV proteins identified (APP1 to APP4) [18], but only APP4 (wsv267) protein could find its homolog in Nimav-1_LVa (171p).
In the cases of the last four genes, g046 (CHH), g155 (innexin), g158 (BAX inhibitor 1 like), g227 (semaphorin 1A like), their roles in virus infection was not obvious. The Nimav-1_LVa g046 gene encodes a 123 AA protein (ROT61446), which is 59% homologous to the crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH) like protein encoded by gene KJ660843 [59]. Both proteins are encoded in three coding-exons and are co-classified in the CHH group named as type-Ib [6]. Notably, there are around 21 type-Ib CHH genes in the P. vannamei genome [6], and 13 of them seem to be accounted for by this viral g046. In addition to the manifold functions in blood glucose regulation, control of the molt cycle, osmoregulation, etc. [60,61], CHH peptides can increase the survival rate of bacteria-infected shrimp [62] and might be involved in hemocyte intracellular signaling pathways to regulate exocytosis and immune response [63].
Gene g155 encodes a membrane protein innexin (pfam00876), which is functionally analogous to the vertebrate connexin in the cell gap junction [64,65]. There are 21 innexin genes in P. vannamei [6], and some of them are due to the multiplication of the viral genome. Innexin is involved in immune response and cell apoptosis [65,66], probably by regulating the closure of the gap channel to reduce the neighboring cellular apoptosis [67,68]. In a study in red swamp crayfish, the innexin gene has been listed as a candidate anti-WSSV gene [57]. Notably, the g155 gene contains four exons, and its homolog is found in Mj nimavirus (BFCD01000001.1). Interestingly, innexin-like genes were also reported in a number of parasitoid viruses from the Ichnovirus genus in the Polydnaviridae family, such as Campoletis sonorensis ichnovirus (CsIV) and Hyposoter didymator ichnovirus (HdIV) and Hyposoter fugitivus ichnovirus (HfIV) [69,70], where innexins are termed vinnexins but are viewed as orthologs of host innexins acquired by the viruses since they show strong sequence similarity to insect innexins [69,70]. However, unlike the Nimav-1_LVa encoded g155 (innexin), these vinnexin genes lack introns [71].
Gene g158 encodes a BAX inhibitor (BI)-1-like protein (cd10430), which is located primarily in the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and suppresses ER stress-induced apoptosis [72,73]. BI-1 is a conserved suppressor of programmed cell death in animals and plants [74]. Gene g158 also contains exons, but its homolog is not found in the Mj nimavirus genome, probably due to the incompleteness of the current Mj nimavirus assembly. Interestingly, the genomic loci of g158 are next to that of g155 (Table 3).
Gene g227 encodes a trans-membrane semaphorin 1A (Sema1A)-like protein (Class 1 semaphorins). While semaphorins generally act as signaling ligands that regulate the shape and motility of cells, their roles in immunity have been noticed [75,76]. Membrane-associated semaphorins play a role in regulating immune homeostasis in mouse models [77], according to which CD72 (Cluster of Differentiation 72) and TIM-2 (T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain protein 2) ligands functionally interact with semaphorin Sema4D and Sema4A, respectively [78]. Although direct evidence supporting the involvement of Sema1A in immune regulation still lack in invertebrate system, the finding of Sema1A-like protein encoded in a virus-like Nimav-1_LVa is probably not a simple coincidence, especially considering that the other three cellular-like genes, g046 (CHH), g155 (innexin), g158 (BAX inhibitor 1 like), are all present in Nimav-1_LVa, likely involved in pathogen-host interactions. Therefore, we hypothesized that g227 (semaphorin 1A like) could also have a potential role in immune regulation.
4. Discussion
4.1. Nimav-1_LVa Consensus Sequence
We reported reconstructing a 279 Kb long, high-quality consensus sequence from the genome of P. vannamei breed Kehai No. 1 variety farmed in China [6], to represent the complete genome of an endogenous nimavirus, Nimav-1_LVa. This consensus sequence showed a ~98% sequence identity to our previous DNAV-1_LVa consensus reconstructed from the first SPF P. vannamei domesticated in the US [1,30,39]. It was reported that Kehai No. 1 was derived from Hawaii, USA, as well [79]. However, it remains to be determined if the original Kehai No. 1 stocks were purchased from a private American shrimp breeding company (High Health Aquaculture, HHA) based in Kona, Hawaii, or from the original SPF Kona line of the breeding program of the USMSFP Consortium, which was funded by the USDA-CSREES and maintained at The Oceanic Institute in Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaii until 2009 [1]. This 279 Kb of Nimav-1_LVa is very close to the known genome size range of WSSV viruses (280–309 Kb) but much larger than the current scaffold assemblies of all other endogenous nimaviruses (Table 1). This is probably because only those contigs bearing homology to WSSV sequences are considered [28]. The successful reconstruction of Nimav-1_LVa is largely attributed to two factors that a large quantity of Nimav-1_LVa remnant is present in the shrimp genome and that the integration of Nimav-1_LVa is a relatively recent event. Given the high sequence similarity among the large Nimav-1_LVa fragments in the genome, the question arises of if this Nimav-1_LVa, coupled with the highly abundant (>23.93%) SSRs [6], could cause any assembling problem, and to what extent. With hindsight, the current 1.6 Gb Kehai No. 1 assembly is quite apart from the expected 2.45 to 2.89 Gb of P. vannamei [1]. Considering the complexity of the shrimp genome, it would be good to have another genome assembly from a different P. vannamei stock available in the future.
Compared to the sequence from individual loci, consensus sequence possesses the merit of restoring the viral sequence to its early state when the integration first happened, thus minimizing the adverse effects caused by numerous sequence mutations. Gene prediction made on the consensus would be more accurate. For instance, in the Mj nimavirus sequence (BFCD01000001.1), the corresponding coding region of Nimav-1_LVa gene g130 (1145 AA) is interrupted by a frameshift mutation.
Sequence analysis in the shrimp genome indicates Nimav-1_LVa viruses integrate exclusively into telomeric microsatellite (TAACC/GGTTA)n [6,39]. The telomere-specific integration pattern could be partly explained by negative selection on those integrations in the non-dormant regions because, as demonstrated in human herpesvirus 6A and 6B (HHV-6A and HHV-6B) [41], insertion into telomere could help viruses to maintain a state of latency, although reversible. However, the molecular mechanism underlying such a site-specific integration cannot be excluded and is worthwhile for future investigations. In the scope of DNA virus, it is known that HHV-6A and HHV-6B and the chicken lymphotropic alphaherpesvirus Marek’s disease virus (MDV) can insert specifically into telomere site via the homology-dependent recombination, where the linear double-stranded DNA viruses have variable length of telomere-like repeat regions at either genome end [40,42,43,44]. As shown in Figure 1B, it remains to be determined if the circular Nimav-1_LVa genome does harbor one or two tracts of telomeric pentanucleotide (TAACC/GGTTA)n.
4.2. Endogenized or Free-Living Virus
Although a number of endogenous nimaviruses have been revealed in the genomes of various crustacean species [27,28,80], one compelling question remains, that is whether these endogenous virus sequences are passive relics of some old nimaviruses (“fossilized”), or recent inhabitants in these eukaryotic genomes, from some unidentified free-living viruses, and still possibly possess the capability to proliferate and transmit to different genomes/species under certain circumstances. Currently, at least two cases of endogenous nimaviruses suggest the latter scenario. The first one is the detection of almost identical Nimav-1_LVa sequences in the genomes of three shrimp species: P. vannamei Kehai No. 1, P. monodon isolate Shenzhen (NIUS000000000), and M. japonicus isolate Guangxi (NIUR010000000), in spite of the fact that much less Nimav-1_LVa is in the latter two shrimp genomes. The second line of evidence is the identification of almost identical (99%) Mj-type nimavirus sequence in M. japonicus and M. latisulcatus [28]. In light of the unexpected large diversity of virome observed in a single species of marine invertebrate (P. monodon) from different geographic locations [81], these data suggest the two nimaviruses or their closest relatives may exist as free-living viruses in nature, except that they may be not so virulent as WSSV (more discussed below).
It is worth noting that endogenous and free-living states are two equally essential stages/phases in the life cycle of some parasitoid viruses [82], such as the polydnavirus Campoletis sonorensis ichnovirus (CsIV) [69,70]. The genomes of these viruses, comprising multiple endogenous DNA segments, are endogenously integrated into the genome of the parasitoid wasp (Campoletis sonorensis) [69,82], which is parasitic on a host (usually lepidopteran) larva. The virus particles are only replicated (produced) in specific cell types in the female wasp’s reproductive organs and are injected, together with one or more eggs, into the lepidopteran host. In such a system, viral genes are essentially inhibitors of the wasp’s host’s immune system, preventing it from killing the wasp’s injected egg and the immature wasp, until the ultimate death of the parasitized host. This mutualism association or coevolution of virus and parasitoid insect was dated over at least 64 million years [83].
4.3. Nimav-1_LVa Encoded Proteins
A total of 117 protein genes, including 97 homology-based and 20 hypothetical genes, have been predicted in the Nimav-1_LVa genome if the criterion is set to 70 amino acids long. This number of genes is presumably very close to the actual gene number in Nimav-1_LVa because only 16% of the virus genome is intergenic region when long microsatellite regions are excluded. These 117 genes can be generally divided into three sections according to their evolutionary status: (1) 44 nimavirus ancestral/core genes, which are shared in Nimav-1_LVa and WSSV, (2) eight genes whose homologs are found in non-WSSV and non-Mj-group nimaviruses, (3) 65 genes whose homologs seemingly only exist in the Mj-group nimaviruses or in the eukaryotic host genome. This division is just for the purpose of expedience because some genuine homologs are inevitably overlooked due to the vast sequence divergence, especially for those smaller genes. Notably, it is possible that in the intergenic region, still exist some smaller protein genes or viral miRNA genes [84,85].
Compared with WSSV, one prominent feature of Nimav-1_LVa is that it encodes more than a dozen genes involved in the critical processes in pathogen-host interactions, such as immune responses and/or apoptosis inhibition [86]. These genes/families include g103 (Hsp70), g118 (DnaJ, also called Hsp40), g132 (ubiquitin), g046 (CHH), g155 (innexin), g158 (BAX inhibitor 1 like), g227 (semaphorin 1A like), g171 (anti-apoptotic protein), and the six IAPs from the PF2 gene family. We hypothesized that four genes, g046 (CHH), g155 (innexin), g158 (BAX inhibitor 1 like), and g227 (semaphorin 1A like), were likely derived from cellular genes, but had been harnessed by Nimav-1_LVa for its own advantage. This notion was based on the following observations. First, intronic genes are normally very rare in viruses, and all WSSV genes are non-splicing; however, the exon-intron structure is found in g046 (CHH), g155 (innexin), and g158 (BAX inhibitor 1 like) in Nimav-1_LVa. Second, to our knowledge, CHH (g046) gene has never been reported in a virus genome before. Despite being reported in a few parasitoid viruses, innexin/vinnexin (g155) genes are still considered acquired host genes [69,70]. The occurrence of innexin/vinnexin in both Nimav-1_LVa and polydnavirus Campoletis sonorensis ichnovirus (CsIV) is likely the result of convergent evolution, suggesting Nimav-1_LVa virus, to some extent, may not be a virulent virus. Third, all the genes had been reported, or suggested, being involved in immune regulation after virus infection. Lastly, g155 (innexin), g158 (BAX inhibitor 1 like), and g227 (semaphorin 1A like) are all membrane protein genes. In summary, to get a comprehensive perspective on the evolution in Nimaviridae, our preliminary results highlight the need for completed assemblies in more endogenous nimaviruses.
5. Conclusions
A ~279 Kb contiguous consensus sequence, designated as Nimav-1_LVa, was successfully reconstructed from the genome sequence of the whiteleg shrimp Penaeus vannamei breed Kehai No. 1. The consensus putatively represented the complete genome of a nimavirus that had been endogenized in the shrimp genome. Out of 117 protein genes, Nimav-1_LVa encoded a dozen of genes involved in the host-pathogen interactions, albeit some were acquired host genes. The data suggested Nimav-1_LVa virus might take a different strategy than WSSV, aiming at a long-term or benign relationship with the host. The genome of Nimav-1_LVa could facilitate a better understanding of evolution in virus family Nimaviridae and could also be applicable in the shrimp breeding, traceability of farmed shrimp, WSSV diagnosis, and treatment of WSD [26,87].
Supplementary Materials
The following are available online at
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, W.B.; methodology, W.B.; formal analysis, W.B.; resources, A.A.-W.; data curation, W.B.; writing—original draft preparation, W.B.; writing—review and editing, W.B., A.A.-W., and K.F.J.T.; project administration, A.A.-W.; funding acquisition, A.A.-W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research is part of The Shrimp Epigenome (ShrimpENCODE) Project initially funded by the Foundation for Conservation of Biodiversity (FUCOBI) of Quito, Ecuador, and Environmental Genomics Inc. of Southborough, MA USA. Funding for this research was provided by the U.S. Marine Shrimp Farming Consortium, Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES), USDA, under Grant No. 2002-38808-01345. (A.A.-W. was a Technical Committee member 1992-2005, Tufts University). Partial funding for sequencing with PacBio technology was provided by the USDA NRSP-8 Aquaculture group (to A.A.-W., Environmental Genomics Inc.). The APC was funded by Environmental Genomics, Inc.
Acknowledgments
We thank Shaun Moss and the staff at The Oceanic Institute in Honolulu, HI for supplying the broodstock used in this study; Dawn Meehan at Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Grafton, MA for assistance with collection of hemolymph and other tissues used for gDNA extraction; Robert Bogden, Quanzhou Tao, Suresh Iyer, Galina Mikhaylenko, Jon Wittendorp, Amy Mraz, and Evan Hart from Amplicon Express for their efforts to prepare HMW gDNA for BAC library construction that was ideal for making 20Kb PacBio SMRTCell libraries and running on the Pacific Bioscience RSII platform with P5 chemistry; and Emily Hatas, Steven Kujawa, Joan Wilson, and Karl Voss from Pacific Biosciences for their time assisting with the pilot genome sequencing of the first SPF P. vannamei domesticated in the United States by the USMSFP consortium.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Figures and Tables
Enlarge this image.Figure 1. (A) Schematic representation of Nimav-1_LVa endogenous nimavirus and the encoded genes. Uppermost part indicates the location of genes and their transcription orientation (in pink or light blue). Gene names in black are 20 hypothetical genes, gene names in blue (n = 3) indicate no viral homologs are found, genes in green (n = 94) indicate viral homologs are found. The brown boxes indicate the locations of long tracts of simple tandem repeats. Solid lines below the Nimav-1_LVa bar represent some larger Nimav-1_LVa segments present in the Kehai No. 1 assembly. The accession number and location of the segments can be found in Supplementary Table S1; (B) Sequence alignment of the terminal regions of the linear Nimav-1_LVa and the flanking sequences. The green-shaded regions belong to Nimav-1_LVa. The telomeric (TAACC/GGTTA)n microsatellite regions are shaded in grey.
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Conserved blocks in the alignment of 217p, wsv308 (AAL33310.1), and other homologs. 217p is the protein encoded by gene g217 in Nimav-1_LVa, 217p_Mj denote the homolog of 217p encoded in Mj nimavairus. The other proteins and the hosting genome are AAL33310.1 (WSSV), GBG35584.1 (Si nimavirus), GAV93231.1 (Chionoecetes opilio bacilliform virus), GBG35376.1 (Ht nimavirus), and GBG35522.1 (Pm nimavirus). Numbers after the slash indicate the length of that protein. Numbers at either side of the blocks indicate the locations of the preceding/following amino acids in each protein.
Seven representative nimaviruses of the seven major phylogenetic groups.
| Nimaviruses | GenBank Accessions | Size (Kb) 1 |
|---|---|---|
| White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) | AF332093.3 | 305.119 |
| C. opilio bacilliform virus (CoBV) | BDLS01000001 and BDLS01000002 | 237.1 |
| M. japonicus endogenous nimavirus (Mj) | BFCD01000001 and AP010878 | ~220 |
| P. monodon endogenous nimavirus (Pm) | BFCF01000001 to BFCF01000003 | 191.8 |
| H. takanoi endogenous nimavirus (Ht) | BFCC01000001 to BFCC01000006 | 218.1 |
| M. ensis endogenous nimavirus (Me) | BFCE01000001 to BFCE01000010 | 232.4 |
| S. intermedium endogenous nimavirus (Si) | BFCG01000001 to BFCG01000014 | 189 |
1 Except for the complete genomes of various WSSV strains, the genomes of the other nimaviruses are all incomplete so far. According to Kawato et al. [28], the M. japonicus endogenous nimavirus regions in the bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clone sequences (AP010878 and BFCD01000001) are added to be only ~220 Kb, excluding the terminal non-viral regions.
Table 2Three types of nimavirus sequences were detected in two shrimp species.
| Nimavirus Type | Length (Identity 1) | |
|---|---|---|
| P. monodon | M. japonicus | |
| Nimav-1_LVa | >141 Kb (>99%) | >33 Kb (>99%) |
| Mj-like | >200 Kb (>91%) | >49 Kb (>88%) |
| Pm-like | >226 Kb (>88%) | >199 Kb (>88%) |
1 The identity in the parenthesis indicates the minimum sequence identity to the known nimavirus for most majority of the homologous sequences detected in each search.
Table 3A total of 117 protein-coding genes predicted in Nimav-1_LVa endogenous nimavirus.
| Genes 1 | CDS start | CDS end | Direction | Protein (AA) | Viral Homolog 2 | Comment 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| g002 | 1388 | 1990 | d | 201 | g009 | PF1 |
| g003 | 7002 | 8099 | r | 217 | AKS10635.1 | PF2, 4 exons, 2 BIR domains (cd00022) |
| g004 | 8792 | 9187 | d | 132 | BFCD01000001.1 (98,829–99,209) | |
| g006 | 10,037 | 11,149 | d | 371 | g008 | PF1 |
| g008 | 11,219 | 12,316 | d | 366 | g006 | PF1 |
| g009 | 12,527 | 13,123 | r | 199 | g002 | PF1 |
| g010 | 13,467 | 14,258 | r | 264 | g161 | PF1 |
| g011 | 14,749 | 15,966 | d | 406 | g006 | PF1 |
| g012 | 16,319 | 19,114 | r | 725 | AKS10635.1 | PF2, 4 exons, 3 BIR domains (cd00022), 1 RING-HC_BIRC2_3_7 (cd16713) |
| g017 | 19,256 | 21,711 | r | 710 | AKS10635.1 | PF2, 4 exons, 3 BIR domains (cd00022), 1 RING-HC_BIRC2_3_7 (cd16713) |
| g021 | 24,393 | 24,710 | r | 106 | ||
| g022 | 27,849 | 31,305 | d | 782 | AP010878.1 (14,919–16,765) | 5 exons |
| g026 | 31,556 | 33,238 | r | 561 | AP010878.1 (4458-6026) | |
| g027 | 33,243 | 33,857 | r | 205 | AP010878.1 (3787–4395) | |
| g030 | 34,488 | 35,048 | r | 187 | AKS10635.1 | PF2, 1 BIR domain (cd00022) |
| g031 | 3,5478 | 37,592 | d | 705 | GBG35399.1 | wsv220-like, capsid protein |
| g033 | 37,838 | 38,707 | d | 290 | ||
| g034 | 38,729 | 39,364 | r | 212 | GBG35402.1 | wsv206-like, PF6, containing macro domain (cd02749), a high-affinity ADP-ribose binding module, as shown in GBG35398. |
| g036 | 39,656 | 45,952 | d | 2099 | BFCD01000001.1 (62,195–69,574) | |
| g038 | 46,087 | 48,771 | d | 895 | BFCD01000001.1 (57,879–62,171) | |
| g040 | 48,899 | 49,639 | r | 247 | ||
| g042 | 49,557 | 53,573 | r | 1339 | GBG35397.1 | wsv026-like |
| g045 | 54,485 | 57,460 | d | 1138 | GBG35396.1 | wsv115-like, envelope protein |
| g046 | 57,833 | 58,502 | r | 123 | 3 exons, CHH-like, containing crust_neurohorm domain (pfam01147) | |
| g047 | 58,782 | 60,584 | d | 448 | AKS10635.1 | PF2, 4 exons, 2 BIR domains (cd00022), 1 RING-HC_BIRC4_8 (cd16714) |
| g049 | 60,851 | 62,533 | d | 412 | AKS10635.1 | PF2, 5 exons, 2 BIR domains (cd00022), 1 RING-HC_BIRC4_8 (cd16714) |
| g050 | 62,862 | 64,124 | d | 421 | g051 | PF3 |
| g051 | 64,435 | 65,805 | d | 457 | g050 | PF3 |
| g052 | 66,042 | 69,944 | d | 1301 | BFCD01000001.1 (167,202–171,290) | PF3 |
| g056 | 70,367 | 71,194 | d | 276 | g269 | PF5 |
| g058 | 75,545 | 76,801 | r | 419 | BFCD01000001.1 (79,831–81,120) | |
| g060 | 76,972 | 77,379 | r | 136 | BFCD01000001.1 (79,176–79,601) | |
| g061 | 77,382 | 78,608 | r | 409 | GBG35401.1 | wsv415-like, capsid protein |
| g062 | 78,779 | 79,048 | d | 90 | BFCD01000001.1 (77,744–77,460) | |
| g063 | 79,405 | 82,122 | r | 906 | GBG35400.1 | wsv216-like, envelope protein |
| g065 | 82,204 | 82,896 | r | 231 | ||
| g066 | 83,301 | 83,948 | d | 216 | ||
| g068 | 84,162 | 84,830 | d | 223 | ||
| g071 | 86,831 | 88,126 | r | 432 | GBG35404.1 | wsv161-like |
| g072 | 88,344 | 91,454 | r | 1037 | GBG35405.1 | wsv011-like, envelope protein |
| g077 | 91,612 | 94,842 | r | 1077 | GBG35406.1 | wsv313-like |
| g081 | 95,577 | 96,821 | d | 415 | GBG35407.1 | wsv282-like |
| g083 | 97,302 | 115,505 | d | 6068 | GBG35408.1 | wsv360-like, capsid protein |
| g098 | 115,730 | 119,659 | d | 1310 | GBG35428.1 | wsv037-like, capsid protein |
| g103 | 119,938 | 122,058 | r | 707 | GBG35427.1 | molecular chaperone DnaK (HSP70) protein domain (COG0443) |
| g106 | 122,293 | 123,042 | d | 250 | BFCD01000001.1 (191,561–192,277) | |
| g107 | 123,054 | 123,677 | d | 208 | GBG35426.1 | wsv021-like, envelope protein |
| g108 | 123,758 | 127,078 | d | 1107 | GBG35425.1 | wsv139-like |
| g110 | 127,163 | 128,206 | d | 348 | GBG35424.1 | wsv137-like |
| g112 | 128,419 | 131,400 | d | 994 | GBG35423.1 | wsv192-like |
| g115 | 131,798 | 134,191 | d | 798 | GBG35356.1 | SCV_095-like, ATP-dependent DNA ligase I (dnl1) domain (TIGR00574) and Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase and DNA-Ligase Zn-finger (pfam00645) |
| g118 | 134,634 | 135,728 | d | 365 | DnaJ/Hsp40 protein, containing DnaJ-class molecular chaperone with C-terminal Zn finger domain (COG0484) | |
| g123 | 136,705 | 137,067 | d | 121 | GBG35422.1 | wsv136-like |
| g125 | 137,840 | 138,184 | r | 115 | ||
| g126 | 139,067 | 139,678 | d | 204 | BFCD01000001.1 (181,829–182,488) | |
| g130 | 140,199 | 143,633 | r | 1145 | GBG35421.1 | wsv271-like, capsid protein |
| g131 | 143,809 | 145,152 | d | 448 | GBG35420.1 | wsv131-like |
| g132 | 145,203 | 145,433 | r | 77 | BFCD01000001.1 (176,011–176,340) | ubiquitin-like (Ubl) domain (cd01803) found in ubiquitin |
| g133 | 145,548 | 146,687 | r | 380 | GBG35419.1 | wsv325-like, envelope protein |
| g134 | 146,697 | 147,203 | d | 169 | BFCD01000001.1 (172,895–173,647) | |
| g135 | 147,318 | 148,061 | d | 248 | GBG35417.1 | wsv133-like |
| g136 | 147,643 | 148,566 | d | 308 | GBG35418.1 | wsv134-like |
| g137 | 148,715 | 148,927 | r | 71 | ||
| g139 | 149,321 | 149,815 | d | 165 | GBG35402.1 | wsv206-like, PF6, containing macro domain (cd02749), a high-affinity ADP-ribose binding module, as shown in GBG35398. |
| g140 | 150,049 | 151,434 | d | 462 | BFCC01000003.1 (801–2426) | wsv112-like, dUTPase, containing deoxyuridine 5’-triphosphate nucleotidohydrolase (dut) domain (TIGR00576) |
| g141 | 151,587 | 152,777 | d | 397 | g143 | PF1 |
| g143 | 152,974 | 154,158 | d | 395 | g141 | PF1 |
| g146 | 154,360 | 155,547 | d | 396 | g006 | PF1 |
| g149 | 156,541 | 156,915 | d | 125 | ||
| g150 | 157,204 | 158,148 | r | 315 | ||
| g152 | 158,385 | 158,825 | d | 147 | ||
| g153 | 159,042 | 160,274 | d | 411 | ||
| g154 | 160,465 | 161,412 | d | 316 | ||
| g155 | 161,589 | 163,290 | d | 428 | BFCD01000001.1 (51,019–52,483) | 4 exons, innexin domain (pfam00876) |
| g158 | 163,455 | 165,615 | r | 274 | 5 exons, Bax inhibitor (BI)-1 domain (cd10430). | |
| g161 | 165,152 | 165,772 | d | 207 | g010 | PF1 |
| g162 | 166,492 | 166,767 | d | 92 | ||
| g163 | 167,017 | 167,787 | d | 257 | ||
| g166 | 168,473 | 172,924 | d | 1484 | BBD20107.1 | wsv209-like, envelope protein |
| g170 | 172,897 | 173,529 | d | 211 | AP010878.1 (53,502–54,038) | |
| g171 | 173,590 | 174,540 | d | 317 | BBD20108.1 | wsv267-like, anti-apoptotic protein |
| g172 | 174,735 | 175,523 | d | 263 | AP010878.1 (55,291–56,157) | PF4 |
| g173 | 175,556 | 176,485 | d | 310 | AP010878.1 (55,291–56,157) | PF4 |
| g175 | 176,584 | 177,510 | r | 309 | ||
| g176 | 177,844 | 178,152 | d | 103 | BBD20109.1 | wsv293a-like, envelope protein |
| g177 | 178,301 | 183,058 | d | 1586 | GBG35554.1 | wsv289-like, capsid protein |
| g187 | 183,225 | 196,220 | r | 4332 | BBD20111.1 | wsv343-like |
| g206 | 196,741 | 197,286 | d | 182 | BFCG01000002.1 (22,541–22,065) | SCV_028-like |
| g208 | 197,905 | 199,944 | r | 680 | BBD20112.1 | wsv327-like, envelope protein |
| g211 | 200,119 | 202,590 | d | 824 | BBD20113.1 | wsv332-like |
| g213 | 203,182 | 204,525 | d | 448 | BBD20114.1 | wsv306-like, tegument protein |
| g217 | 204,533 | 206,176 | d | 548 | AP010878.1 (81,486–83,258) | wsv308-like, capsid protein |
| g220 | 207,060 | 207,515 | d | 152 | AP010878.1 (84,507–85,430) | |
| g222 | 207,948 | 210,626 | d | 893 | BBD20115.1 | wsv285-like |
| g223 | 210,916 | 212,928 | d | 671 | AP010878.1 (89,194–91,152) | |
| g225 | 218,360 | 220,426 | d | 689 | GBG35515.1 | wsv226-like |
| g227 | 225,839 | 227,851 | d | 671 | AP010878.1 (111,284–114,223) | semaphorin 1A (Sema_1A) domain (cd11237) |
| g228 | 228,056 | 229,738 | d | 561 | AP010878.1 (109,235–110,863) | |
| g231 | 230,064 | 232,973 | d | 970 | GBG35403.1 | wsv035-like, envelope protein |
| g234 | 233,341 | 234,681 | r | 447 | In GenBank, part of 234p is computationally predicted as high mobility group protein DSP1-like (XP_027238145.1), 184 AA. | |
| g236 | 234,925 | 237,936 | d | 1004 | BFCD01000001.1 (86,470–89,643) | |
| g240 | 241,130 | 241,501 | d | 124 | ||
| g241 | 241,716 | 242,537 | d | 274 | ||
| g242 | 242,655 | 244,988 | r | 778 | GBG35414.1 | wsv303-like |
| g246 | 245,095 | 249,063 | r | 1323 | GBG35413.1 | wsv433-like |
| g251 | 249,059 | 249,457 | r | 133 | GBG35412.1 | wsv432-like |
| g252 | 249,459 | 251,285 | d | 609 | GBG35411.1 | wsv427-like |
| g253 | 251,758 | 254,091 | d | 778 | BFCD01000001.1 (134,943–137,015) | |
| g254 | 254,266 | 255,603 | d | 446 | GBG35410.1 | wsv423-like, Protein kinase 1 |
| g255 | 255,856 | 257,829 | d | 658 | GBG35409.1 | wsv440-like |
| g257 | 258,137 | 259,543 | r | 469 | g050 | PF3 |
| g259 | 259,757 | 267,121 | r | 2455 | GBG35416.1 | wsv514-like, DNA polymerase |
| g262 | 267,305 | 272,629 | d | 1775 | GBG35415.1 | wsv447-like |
| g268 | 272,942 | 273,223 | d | 94 | ||
| g269 | 273,601 | 274,653 | d | 351 | g271 | PF5 |
| g271 | 275,034 | 277,334 | d | 767 | g269 | PF5 |
| g276 | 278,291 | 279,160 | d | 290 | AP010878.1 (55,291–56,157) | PF4 |
1 65 Mj-group-specific genes are indicated by bold font. 2 Viral homologs in this table refer to those present in Nimav-1_LVa, WSSV, Chionoecetes opilio bacilliform virus, and other endogenous nimaviruses (see Table 1 and methods section). Only the top homologous proteins or coding sequences are listed in this table. The parenthesized coordinates after the accession numbers indicate the homologous coding regions detected by TblastN. 3 Exon numbers here refer only to the coding exon. WSSV gene nomenclature indicated with “wsvNNN” is taken from the annotation in AF332093.3 (WSSV-CN strain). PF: paralog families; BIR: Baculovirus Inhibitor of apoptosis protein Repeat; RING-HC: Really Interesting New Gene finger domain of the C3HC4 type; BIRC: baculoviral inhibitor of apoptosis protein repeat containing protein.
© 2020 by the authors.
Details
; Tang, Kathy F J 2 ; Alcivar-Warren, Acacia 3 1 Genetic Information Research Institute, 20380 Town Center Lane, Suite 240, Cupertino, CA 95014, USA
2 Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, 106 Nanjing Road, Qingdao 266071, China
3 Fundación para la Conservation de la Biodiversidad Acuática y Terrestre (FUCOBI), Quito EC1701, Ecuador; Environmental Genomics Inc., ONE HEALTH Epigenomics Educational Initiative, P.O. Box 196, Southborough, MA 01772, USA