Consumers’ Attitude towards Renewable Energy in the Context of the Energy Crisis

Abstract

The use of renewable energy (RE) is considered one of the most important topics of discussion regarding sustainable consumption and environmental protection nowadays. More than ever, a new energy crisis is forming due to the effect of political and military conflicts that have already been in place for some time. Our research envisages using a sample of 1126 respondents for the validation of a theoretical model that highlights the complex relationship between specific variables, such as concern for the environment, knowledge about renewable energy, perceived utility regarding RE usage, ease of use regarding RE, attitude toward RE utilization and behavioral intentions to use RE. The results show that attitudes towards renewable energy consumption are strongly influenced by the other latent constructs with perceived utility, social influence and concern for the environment being among the most determining ones. Behavioral intentions and the actual consumption behavior for RE are more and more clearly expressed in terms of decisions regarding the type of renewable energy technology preferred by consumers, and correlations with variables such as the level of education and higher income are easily highlighted.

1. Introduction

Renewable energy is a topic that has constantly been a concern of specialists in recent years. The increased interest in this concept is also generated by phenomena such as global warming and the accelerated degradation of the environment, but very special attention is due to the current extremely worrying conflict situation that is manifested on the international level. Insecurity and conflicts that have also degenerated into direct military confrontations create the conditions for a real energy crisis. Thus, the issue of the production and management of renewable energy is a very important concern for both policymakers and the civilian population. Beyond the mere economic importance and rational decisions regarding the consumption of resources, the problem of renewable energy usage and consumption is closely related to concerns about the environment as a whole.

The attention given to the environment can be considered one of the important variables that define sustainability in the current context, highlighted in the specialized literature in the field of green marketing as “the emotional involvement of consumers regarding the various problems regarding the environment” [1]. This concern for the environment is also a determining factor for the purchase decision-making process in the case of “green” consumers [2]; previous research in the field highlights the fact that purchase intentions related to “green” brands [3], as well as ecological purchase behavior, are the direct consequences of a clear pro-environmental attitude [4]. In addition to the natural global evolution that highlights the need to protect the environment, the particular situation generated by the armed conflict between Russia and Ukraine has directly affected several neighboring states, including Romania, generating a crisis with implications for electricity as well.

Thus, in Romania, there was a very large increase in the price of electricity in the first half of 2022, as can be seen in Figure 1, an increase that generated concerns among end consumers.

In another study relevant to our research, published in March 2019, Deloitte Consultancy SRL presented three possible scenarios regarding the increase in electricity consumption. The study shows that the price of renewable electricity will reach a maximum in 2030 and decrease thereafter, due to a lower generation cost influenced by the evolution of technologies [6].

As can be seen in the Figure 2, the average price of electricity is 112.4 EUR/MWh in the scenario corresponding to the time of the study, 113.7 EUR/MWh in Potential scenario A, and 138.2 EUR/MWh in Potential scenario B. For the LCOE calculation, the wind LCOE projection according to BNEF—Germany USD ‘16, as an average for the period 2021–2030, was considered as the calculation basis [6]. For Romania, an adjustment of 10% was made in addition to the cost in Germany. This adjustment is the same for the analyzed scenarios. The resulting values for LCOE can be consulted in the Figure 2, both in the version that includes storage costs and in the version that does not take these costs into account. For the calculation of the average price of wholesale electricity, information collected from the European Energy Exchange (EEX), the Energy Exchange (HUPX), and the Derivatives Exchange (HUDEX) of Hungary was used as the basis for the calculation from Romania (OPCOM), to which were added the assumptions substantiated by a team of consultants, based on the latest information available at the European level [6]. This resulted in an average wholesale electricity price of, respectively, 89.9 EUR/MWh in 2030 in the current scenario, 80.9 in Potential scenario A and 75.1 EUR/MWh in Potential scenario B [6]. Considering these data, which clearly demonstrate the possibility that the prices related to renewable energy are consistently lower than those of classic brown energy, we considered it appropriate to design research that wanted to highlight the attitude of young urban consumers towards the acceptance of new technologies responsible for the production of renewable energy.

In this context, in which a sharp increase in electricity and natural gas prices is expected due to the increased demand for energy after the COVID crisis and the tensions between the Russian Federation, Ukraine, and the European Union reaching unprecedented levels, we propose a study that highlights how the attitudes of consumers towards renewable energy can be represented within a coherent model. The model emphasizes the relationship between key variables such as concern for the environment, knowledge about renewable energy, perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage, social influence regarding renewable energy, ease of use regarding renewable energy, attitude toward renewable energy, behavioral intentions to use renewable energy and consumer behavior regarding it. The research is exploratory, not meeting the conditions of representativeness of the sample at the national level, because the people were selected from university campuses related to the cities indicated in the research methodology; however, we analyze and interpret our results from the perspective of a context that allows a notable contribution to the sum of information needed by the policymakers in designing the National Energy and Climate Plan with addressability for the broader population.

For the construction of the conceptual model proposed, we have employed the well-known Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), completed with specific variables such as concern for the environment (CE) and knowledge about renewable energy (KRE) as initial external variables and other variables specific to a later model that was evolved from TAM—Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, the second version (UTAUT2) model—price value for renewable energy (PVRE) and social influence regarding renewable energy (SIRE).

The research question summarizes the relationship between variables from the model, meaning: does the concern for the environment, and knowledge about renewable energy mediated through perceived utility regarding RE usage influence a positive attitude towards RE utilization that can further elicit a behavioral intention and a certain consumption behavior regarding RE later?

In the elaboration of this paper, we considered it opportune to approach the theoretical framework necessary for the definition of the hypotheses within the second section, highlighting in this context, concepts such as concern for the environment, knowledge about renewable energy, perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage, social influence regarding renewable energy, behavioral intention to use renewable energy and consumer behavior regarding renewable energy.

In the final part of the second section of the article, we present a proposal regarding the conceptual model that highlights the links between the variables starting from the connection with the TAM and UTAUT2 models. The third part explains the method of sampling, data collection and measurements as parts of the research methodology, followed by the results and discussion and implications at the level of theory, managerial activity or policymakers’ decisions. The third section of the article aims to present the conclusions, the possible research directions and the limits that can be highlighted for this research.

2. Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis Development

The issue related to renewable energy consumption has been already extensively researched within the scientific literature as we can already speak about a plethora of attempts to develop various technologies capable of producing and managing this type of energy. Renewable energy refers to clean energy that comes from natural sources capable of constantly regenerating itself. Using renewable energy does not mean a completely new type of technology as the various modalities to obtain this type of energy have already evolved, and at present new innovative ways to capture and produce renewable energies from solar and wind energy are available [7].

Green energy consumption takes place within a context in which policymakers have been trying to gradually reduce the production and consumption of brown energy. For example, only at the level of the European Union, in 2021, the EU production of hard coal was 57 million tons, 79% less than the 277 million tons in 1990, as can be seen in Figure 3 below [8].

Most North American and European countries have seen a general downward trend in brown carbon emissions, recording a real decrease of up to 50% from 1960 to 2010, and maintaining relatively low emission levels (about 60 Gg/year) [9]. In the time interval from 2018 to 2021, at the EU market level, hard and brown coal consumption reduced by a fourth [8].

Despite the efforts made by the authorities, currently, at the level of domestic consumers, brown energy consumption continues to prevail, although a significant number of countries have also adopted measures to deregulate their electricity markets, thus providing the necessary framework for customers to be able to choose any electricity supplier on the market [10].

This situation drags on because the price for green energy is still perceived as higher than that of the current sources of classical brown energy. For the future, however, the trends are telling of a shift from brown to green energy as a result of increasingly evident social pressure [11].

More research indicates that a growing number of energy consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the need to evolve towards socially responsible behavior when it comes to energy consumption [10,12,13].

Widespread adoption of renewable green energy leads to a whole range of potential benefits, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions, diversified energy supply solutions and reduced dependence on fossil fuel markets (mainly oil and gas). At the same time, the more intensive use of renewable energy sources creates new jobs for the proper management of new green technologies, which can visibly improve employment [14].

Despite governmental efforts regarding the promotion of renewable energy adoption all over the world, the degree of adoption and consumption of these technologies by the population is not very high and unevenly distributed between the more developed and the less developed countries, which do not benefit from the technological innovation capacity or government funds dedicated to this field [15]. Thus, the desideratum to promote the need for renewable energy adoption and to raise public awareness regarding its benefits and utility becomes an objective reality. In light of these efforts, the consumer decision-making process in the case of the adoption of new technology is a complex endeavor that needs more attention from specialists in order to comprehensively assess the factors of influence and the complexity of relationships among them.

In order to present more clearly the motivation of our study, we will synthesize the scientific literature regarding the issue of renewable energy consumption in the particular geographical setting of the Romanian market. From more than 37 papers written in the last 10 years, we have identified only four papers addressing the issue of renewable energy consumption at the level of the Romanian population. Thus, in research conducted on a sample of 649 respondents, the authors tested the degree to which Romanian consumers are willing to switch from conventional electricity consumption to electricity obtained from renewable sources. The results of the study confirmed the strong influence of concern for climate change in terms of switching to renewable energy consumption. The positive perception towards the introduction of new technologies also represented a positive factor of influence, corroborated by the concern for reducing losses in energy consumption. The degree of knowledge regarding the issue of the environment and renewable energy also represented a variable that positively influenced the perception towards the adoption of this form of energy in consumption [16].

The same authors proposed a second study a year later made of a sample of 602 respondents that represents the most complex research effort made until now on Romanian consumers, proposing quantitative research combined with an experiment designed to assess the degree of acceptance of Romanian households of renewable energy consumption and the factors that can shape these decisions, the willingness to pay for renewable energy and a certain segmentation of consumers [17]. Thus, the authors succeeded in identifying four clusters of consumers of renewable energy, with different behaviors and perceptions regarding renewable energy. In addition, the results have been used to build a simulation of the future developments of the regional market based on consumer preferences. In terms of willingness to pay for renewable energy, the authors’ research is in line with other international research in the field which stated, for example, that persons with a higher income are willing to spend more for pollution reduction through renewable energy consumption.

A study made on 322 respondents selected from the rural region of the north-west of Romania shows that the population from the rural area has a lack of knowledge about renewable energy within the older population, even though the general attitude towards it is a positive one. Results also show a clear need for more information regarding renewable energy, and the willingness to pay more for renewable energy increases with income level. The research also demonstrated the existence of two separate clusters of consumers—optimists and skeptics—toward renewable energy. The level of higher education degrees among the optimists was 33.5% in comparison with the skeptics’ situation—only 20.1% were higher education graduates. In addition, the optimists have a superior income and lower age than the skeptics [18].

Another study conducted on a sample of 816 students wanted to ascertain differences regarding sustainable energy consumption between groups, divided according to the sex variable. The results of the study revealed that women behave more responsibly than men when it comes to electricity consumption. The research also highlights the importance of environmental awareness to develop sustainable behavior [19].

Another study that has as a research question topic regarding the possibility that renewable energy can offer energy independence for Romania and the degree to which the policymakers can implement measures designed to offer a solid ground for the renewable energy consumption development revealed some factors that are negatively affecting the development of the renewable energy production in Romania, among them the system of green certificates issued by the state and mandatory for producers was one of the factors that cause an adverse effect along with factors of a technical nature: the capacity of the electric network to absorb energy and the reserve capacity able to balance fluctuations in the production of renewable energy [20].

Different studies confirm the potential of renewable energy production development in Romania in the context in which the country has achieved its renewable energy production EU target assumed as a part of the European strategy for renewable energy development even since 2014, having real potential to also reach the percentages set in the EU Directive for 2030 [21,22,23,24,25].

According to the latest inventory of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) made by Romania (in 2014), the emissions related to the Energy sector represented approx. 70% of total GHG emissions at national level. Along with energy efficiency measures, renewable energy sources are emerging as the most sustainable alternative to reducing GHG emissions, but also other atmospheric pollutants (SO2, NOX, etc.) in the medium and long term [6].

Romania is one of the EU countries with the greatest natural potential in terms of renewable energy sources. Taking into account the balanced energy mix of Romania and the technological developments in the field of renewable energy sources, a careful examination of the ways to capitalize on the potential of renewable energy is justified.

In the context depicted by the literature in the field, our research motivation becomes clearer and more eloquent: is there a particular influence of the latest economic and political developments in the region (post COVID crisis conditions, Ukrainian war, etc.) on the attitudes and intentional behaviors regarding renewable energy consumption for Romanian consumers?

In the following, we will discuss the main variables that can work together to explain the complex issue of forming attitudes and perceptions toward renewable energy.

2.1. TAM Model and the Context of Renewable Energy Adoption

The adoption of different technologies represents a complex process that deals with the behavioral intentions of individuals, perceptions and attitudes related to the new technology that has to be adopted. The evaluation of this process can be made using different approaches that have been developed over time. The most well-known approaches that are related to each other, consider the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and other subsequent models developed based on TAM, such as TAM2 and Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT 1 and 2). TRA was first developed in 1975 by Fishbein and Ajzen and explains the process through which an individual manifests a conscious intended behavior. TRA starts from the idea that individuals have a rational process through which they asses the implications of their actions before deciding to perform a certain course of action—an intended behavior [26]. TRA also explains the influence of three important variables: the attitude toward behavior and the person’s perception of the social pressure; the subjective norm in the form of normative beliefs determined by the social pressure; and the degree to which certain social groups or persons can approve or disapprove the individual’s behavior. An important condition necessary for TRA to be applied is related to the degree of volitional control of the individual upon his behavior. This “limitation” was resolved in 1991, when Ajzen coined the second approach that can be used in the field, named TPB—Theory of Planned Behavior—adding perceived behavioral control as a variable that can influence behavioral intentions and actual behavior. The TPB was an extension of TRA and it was also capable of operating in situations in which the individuals do not have full control over a particular consumption situation. Human actions in the case of the TPB model are guided by three main factors: beliefs about the outcomes of a certain behavior and their evaluation; beliefs about normative expectations of others and the motivation attached to these beliefs; and beliefs about resources and opportunities that the individual possessed or not as well as anticipated obstacles or problems which prevent the person from performing the desired behavior [27].

The TAM model was developed by Davis in 1989 and wanted to adapt the framework of TRA, stating as the main hypothesis the fact that a person bases her or his acceptance of a certain technology on her or his voluntary intention to use that technology. The intention has a very close relation with the attitude developed by the person and the perception of the usefulness. As we can see in Figure 4, the model has some starting point variables that can define external factors affecting the perceived usefulness and the perceived ease of use at the same time.

The TAM model has proved to be a suitable instrument to properly analyze the issue regarding renewable energy adoption in different contexts. Many researchers have been using it to assess the consumption of renewable energy and in some cases the switching behavior from traditional “brown” energy consumption towards” green” renewable energy [29,30].

Additionally, to analyze the renewable energy adoption process, different authors have employed supplementary variables along with the ones traditionally comprised within the TAM model. For example, variables such as cost, environmental awareness and relative advantages to explore consumers’ intention of using solar PV systems [30]; initial cost, environmental concern, risks and trust, financial incentives, [31]; and environmental awareness, perceived affordability, perceived risk to privacy, and trust in technology providers [32].

The TAM model has been extensively used to explain the adoption process for new technologies. We considered the variables from the TAM model suitable for our research, supplemented with other variables from the subsequent UTAUT2 model because TAM can address individual acceptance and behavior toward technology consumption motivated by external factors concerning that particular technology. Another motivation to use the TAM model as a starting point for our model is that renewable energy adoption can still be considered related to relatively new technology in Romania.

As far as that goes, the advantages of using TAM are documented in the scientific literature as such: TAM is, more robust and more capable of applying the concepts of ease of use and usefulness. Additionally, the original TAM model has been used extensively and many authors took the privilege to add new variables or to combine them from other models to emphasize different technology-related aspects [33].

In the case of our research, for the construction of the conceptual model that we have proposed, we have employed the TAM model completed with specific variables such as concern for the environment (CE) and knowledge about renewable energy (KRE) as initial external variables. Additionally, we have included variables inspired from the later UTAUT 2 model such as price value for renewable energy (PVRE) and social influence regarding renewable energy (SIRE), both of them influencing the perceived utility regarding RE usage (PURE), which gives originality to our study.

Despite its value and advantages, certain limits about the TAM model can still be highlighted as TAM is dealing with users’ acceptance and effective use of technology but can focus only on the determinants of intention, being incapable of giving supplementary information about how the perceptions are formed or how such perceptions can be “manipulated” to increase acceptance [26]. Additionally, TAM has relatively weak support for discriminant validity because all constructs of the TAM are self-reported [26].

2.2. Concern for the Environment

Concern for the environment has been a constant issue over the last decades and is expressed in various forms: concern for the degree of pollution, green consumption, sustainable behavior and concerns regarding the involvement of companies and governmental institutions regarding the preservation of the environment, clean supply chain management, etc. Among these concerns, a constant and important one was that referring to energy consumption and how this can be resolved sustainably, because energy consumption alone represents one of the most important sources of pollution worldwide in comparison with any other single activity [34].

Green consumption will have a variable impact on the environment as a result of both the choice of green products by consumers and an additional commitment on their part. A long-term commitment from consumers will have a significant impact on policies that promote pro-environmental activities. The consumption of conventional energy reflected in the consumption of fossil fuels is by far the most important cause of pollution from the perspective of air pollutants such as carbon and fine particles. The long-term commitment involving giving up this kind of consumption is essential to be able to assess concern for the environment. The fact that concern for the environment has evolved in most developed countries in the form of a true cultural norm [35] has led to the social acceptance of pro-environmental attitudes, which have become capable of possessing an intrinsic value [36]. As a result of this perception, the development strategies of many companies have been built in the direction of promoting products that are both profitable and ecological [37]. Both from the perspective of the finality related to consumption and from the perspective of the technologies involved, forms of renewable energy have the potential to provide viable solutions for environmental problems and consumption needs. Technologies that use renewable sources have in mind the production of electricity based on energy sources different from non-conventional sources, through ecological methods. These renewable energy sources mainly refer to: “photovoltaic cells, thermoelectric technologies, wind machines, biomass, geothermal energy, hydrothermal energy—steam and hydropower” [38].

Due to the low degree of pollution and effective depletion of resources, green energy programs that make use of solar, wind or geothermal energy have a substantially lower environmental impact than programs based on conventional energy sources. This potential determines the substantial possibility that these programs become preferred by consumers, in the context where, for example, about 75% of American citizens consider themselves to be environmentalists [39].

All of the above lead to the natural idea that consumers who show a substantial concern for the environment are interested in a long-term commitment and orientation of consumption towards renewable energy sources, as living proof of socially desirable behavior. As such, we can define the first hypothesis as follows:

Hypothesis 1 (H1).

Concern for the Environment (CE) positively influences Knowledge about Renewable Energy (KRE).

2.3. Knowledge about Renewable Energy and Perceived Utility Regarding Renewable Energy Usage

If consumers have a different innovative alternative to choose from in comparison with current ones, they tend to be reluctant if they do not perceive a clear explanation concerning the benefits or characteristics that can convince them about the new value of the alternative. Thus, the degree of marketability for renewable energy can be influenced by the appreciation made by the consumer for the benefits of these alternative forms of energy.

A higher degree of knowledge regarding the possibility of using renewable energy is very likely to positively change the intensity of beliefs regarding the positive consequences and benefits of its use, as well as the assessments regarding the actual impact of its use. Thus, consumers that are more knowledgeable about renewable energy tend to have stronger beliefs about the positive consequences related to the use of renewable energy in comparison with consumers that are less knowledgeable about renewable energy.

Different studies [40,41] indicate that prior knowledge about some product categories that are closely related to a new product can be used by consumers to create some form of incorrect representation that the features of the new product may have. This can be extended also in the case of adoption decisions for sources of sustainable power—users that already know these new sources are probably more willing to adopt them.

At the moment that a certain consumer is exposed to information regarding a certain innovation, the willingness to adopt it may rise exponentially, thus the positive perception about its utility rises as well. In the case of RE (renewable energy), consumers can become aware of the fact that green electricity is generated differently in comparison with conventional electricity with fewer costs and a considerably lower impact on the environment [35].

The perception of social responsibility regarding the environment and the amount of knowledge already existing about renewable energy sources generate a predictive behavior regarding the use of these sources [35]. Our first hypothesis stated that people that have important concerns about issues related to environmental protection and the sustainable consumption of resources, are also developing a certain level of knowledge and awareness about RE consumption.

The research made by Bang et al., 2000 [38], tested the hypothesis according to which consumers that have more knowledge about the positive consequences of the usage of RE have stronger beliefs regarding these positive consequences than the ones that do not have enough knowledge about renewable energy. In the context of the framework proposed by the theory of reasoned action, knowledge about renewable energy can certainly lead to the manifestation of a higher intensive level of the attitude of individuals towards the belief that these energy sources bring substantial benefits in consumption. In the same frame of reference, consumers who possess a greater amount of knowledge about renewable energy will simultaneously exhibit a greater degree of perceived utility towards this technology. Consistent with the developed attitudes and beliefs developed concerning renewable energy and related knowledge, these consumers will engage in consumption behavior that also denotes a higher level of perceived utility for renewable energy. Starting from these considerations, we can state the second hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2 (H2).

Knowledge about Renewable Energy (KRE) positively influences Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE).

2.4. Price Value for Renewable Energy

The results of previous research indicate that the intentions regarding the use of renewable energy are influenced by the level of the average income recorded for the household from the residential sector. These results are also confirmed in the context of the respective research on the related theory of planned behavior, the variable relating to the subjective norm together with the one that measures willingness to pay affecting the intention to use renewable energy [42].

Environmentally concerned consumers may perceive electricity as a product that can be differentiated by the source of the energy. Energy-generating sources that impact relatively little on the environment are preferred to those that impact considerably, enough that these consumers are willing to pay a premium for energy from renewable sources [43]. Willingness to pay for green electricity is influenced by the level of education, the attitude towards greenhouse gas emissions and the involvement of consumers in activities aimed at saving the consumed energy [43]. At the same time, studies have indicated that consumers are willing to pay extra for an increasing percentage of renewable energy in their total consumption if it comes from different sources [44].

According to Schwartz [45], people are aware of the behavioral consequences concerning their responsible or irresponsible attitude. In the case that people are confronted with the possibility of supporting electricity suppliers that are offering a higher portfolio of renewables even if they have superior prices, they will do it if they are convinced that by doing that they can support positive environmental outcomes. This degree of willingness to pay is an expression of choice behavior and is commonly associated with a positive attitude about renewable energy and the environment, being more significant when respondents have a higher level of education or are men [46].

In the case of green technology products, the utility can be defined as a commitment level and the effect of one of the characteristics of the technology is the same at the level of all engagement levels for the product—conventional utility depends on the total cost and individual attributes [47].

In the case of RE, the price perception can be assimilated with the price difference between grey and green sources of energy power. If the difference is perceived as being very high, it is possible that the adoption of the new form of energy to be fable.

The research conducted by Ha and Janda shows that even the slightest differences between the environmental concerns of the consumers can be translated into significant differences regarding the willingness to pay for renewable energy [48].

Different studies suggest that consumers are prepared, in general, to support their concern for the environment from a financial point of view. Therefore, it can be logical to assume that consumers more concerned about the environment are more willing to pay a premium price for RE than the ones that are not concerned about the environment so much because they associate these technologies with a greater perceived utility in terms of environment preservation. Thus, we can elaborate on this issue and define the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3 (H3).

Price value for RE (PVRE) positively influences Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE).

2.5. Social Influence Regarding Renewable Energy

Within people’s relationships in the social environment, early adoption of new products is often motivated by social benefits. Furthermore, people that are in superordinate social positions may choose to consume new products as a means to create, sustain and communicate enough social differentiation. The other people that are finding themselves in subordinate positions can have a kind of imitation-like behavior because this gives them the feeling that they are close to their superordinates and may improve their social position. Therefore, we can consider that adopting new products or services can have a social and communicational value by itself if this adoption becomes enough visible at the social level and gives people the possibility to be associated with superordinate groups. The visibility of such early adoption behavior makes others conscious of one’s social desirability as an individual that can have a superior social status. As Kulviwat et al. stated, ‘the adoption is an implied endorsement that positions the new product as a symbol of group affiliation’ [49].

If individuals have a sufficient level of knowledge about the effectiveness of renewable energy as a means to preserve the natural environment and to provide a solution to bypass the energy crisis, along with a sufficient level of acceptance by society as a whole in comparison with the use of traditional sources of energy, they are willing to give more perceived utility to renewable energy usage and therefore to be more willing to pay a premium price for its consumption. The perception of renewable energy issues at the social level gives its consumption enough perceived utility, so if some of the consumers associate the consumption of renewable energy to the idea of social desirability presented earlier, it is also possible also that they will perceive a higher degree of utility for renewable energy usage.

Consumers who perceive that others will significantly support ecological buying and/or consumption behavior are more interested in developing a positive relationship towards environmentally conscious consumption, as a result of the development of a relevant subjective norm related to this consumption [50,51]. In this context, the attitude and the subjective norm are fundamentally influenced by the support offered by various social groups and by social trust, simultaneously with the influence that manifests itself at the level of perceived behavioral control of the degree of facilitation of the technical conditions [52].

Social influence regarding renewable energy can be accounted for in the form of socio-political acceptance, community acceptance, and market acceptance [53].

In a study conducted on a sample of 1247 German consumers, the results showed that the degree of acceptance for three different technologies concerning renewable energy was high in general, with a special emphasis on people’s attitudes toward financial support [54].

The effect of adopting renewable energy technology from a social point of view has to also take into consideration the perception of local communities about the impact on the landscape, economic development of the region, etc. [55]. Starting from the above ideas regarding the influence that social factors can exert on renewable energy utility from the point of view of consumers’ perception, we can highlight the following:

Hypothesis 4 (H4).

Social influence regarding RE (SIRE) positively influences Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE).

2.6. Ease of Use Regarding Renewable Energy

Ease of use has a direct connection with the concrete ways in which an individual manages to interact with technology, especially when it has a high degree of novelty. To this, the ability to understand, maintain and operate that technology will be added. Decision-makers can ensure an easier framework for the use of renewable energy if the prerequisites for achieving sufficiently good quality control [56] and fair reporting of the living standards of the target groups are ensured [57]. Thus, the degree of familiarity with renewable energy and the extent to which it is accepted and used is directly proportional to the degree to which future users consider it family-friendly and easy to integrate into their lifestyle [58]. For these acceptance mechanisms to work optimally, the technology behind renewable energy should be simple and easy to install, without the intervention of any technical staff, and the use and maintenance policy should also be very easy. There will be a typology consisting of four big basic types which classify green technology. These refer to groups, grouped according to criteria such as economic, social, technological and environmental. The economic criterion takes into account the investment cost, the total net current cost, the cost that refers to operational matters and the maintenance cost. The social criterion takes into account the level of socio-cultural awareness and the degree of public acceptance, while the technological criterion takes into account the level of resource regeneration, the time required to achieve the performance, and the reliability of the equipment. The environmental criterion refers to greenhouse gases and their impact [59].

The perceived ease of use can be defined as the extent to which individuals are convinced that using the technology comes with a little effort. Thus, according to different studies [60,61], it is possible that the perception of the technology that can be assimilated with simple operations will create positive attitudes. The expected effort implied by the usage of RE is related to the fact that users are expecting a continuous supply of power from their electricity provider at a constant quality over time. Additionally, the expected effort to use and consume this type of energy is perceived from the point of view of the practical aspects of using a system that has to be very similar to the traditional one and does not imply specific skills or knowledge necessary to operate it. The decision to adopt such energy sources and by extension the perceived utility is much more well represented when users are expecting not to have a high probability of system breakdown or power cuts.

The perceived utility for RE usage is closed linked with the relative advantage that this technology has in comparison with traditional sources of energy [31,62].

Individuals will choose the technology that, in their perception, can give them the certainty that they will achieve their goals. Thus, the usefulness they will perceive about the respective technology becomes a determining factor for the manifested behavior of consumers towards the new technology. In the context of perceptions about renewable energy, the perceived utility will be found in the degree to which individuals are convinced that the technology will have an improved performance [63]. Additionally, the resources needed for the consumer implementation of the technology will be appreciated, especially from the perspective of installing the equipment and using it. In the same vein, the study of Wall et al. indicates that the extent to which people perceive the new technology as easy from the perspective of self-management of consumption and interaction has a positive influence on the intention to adopt renewable energy [64]. As a consequence, the above ideas can be synthetized into the form of the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 5 (H5).

Ease of use regarding RE (EURE) positively influences Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE).

2.7. Attitude toward Renewable Energy Utilization in the Context of Perceived Utility

Attitude development toward renewable energy comprises a wider range of consumption motives and perceptions in comparison with other products or services. When we are talking about renewable energy, the social dimension and the intrinsic motivation of individuals, closely related to their values, are becoming essential for attitude development. Research conducted by Caird et al. shows, from a sample of 390 UK households completed with 111 in-depth interviews, that beyond attitude toward RE adoption, the following rely on the social status of “green consumers”: the perceived utility of using RE being in close relation to saving energy, reducing fuel bills and the concern for the environment [65].

Adoption of RE usage and further attitudes about it are strongly influenced by the relative advantage perceived by the consumers in comparison with other classical technologies regarding costs and the utility of the new technologies from the point of view of their capacity to preserve the environment and to have a minimal impact in terms of pollution [31].

The degree to which consumers perceive positive benefits that appear as a result of using renewable energy instead of traditional ones will also determine the manifestation of positive attitudes. From the perspective of extreme climate change, global warming and pollution, consumers can change their perception of the need to protect the environment. As a result, the possibility of becoming adopters of renewable energy increases considerably, being seen as a reasonable option for more sustainable behavior.

Subjective norms originate from the area of interest of social groups of individuals who interact with each other and define the beliefs that they can approve about the consumption of certain products or services, or with a certain type of behavior. Subjective norms are therefore closely related to the social pressure that an individual can feel at a given moment and which determines the orientation of behavior in a certain direction. According to this theory, some studies have highlighted a direct link between the manifestation of subjective norms and the decision of consumers to adopt and use renewable energy [64,66].

Considering all of the above we can issue the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 6 (H6).

Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE) positively influences Attitude toward RE utilization (ATRE).

2.8. Behavioral Intentions to Use Renewable Energy

In a study conducted by Liobikienė et al. on Central and Eastern European consumers, results show that only a cumulative interaction of multiple factors—environmental concern and attitude to renewable energy—makes a significant contribution to the behavioral intention to use renewable energy [67]. Another study conducted on a sample of 200 respondents from Malaysia shows that as people engage in an information effort and the amount of information and knowledge about renewable energy increases substantially, sufficiently high levels of awareness will emerge that can positively influence the intention of different people to use renewable energy even at a smaller scale, for domestic purposes [68].

In terms of renewable energy sources, we can employ the value-belief-norm theory based on the work of Schwartz from 1977 referring to the norm-activation theory. This theory stresses the importance of altruistic values in the creation of personal norms for the individual that can contribute effectively to the behavioral intention to use renewable energy in the context of which other positive factors are manifesting (ease of use, low price perception, the influence of social norm, etc.) [69].

Once consumers manifest the attitude toward RE utilization, further behavior is directed towards the effective use of this technology. Attitudes are expressed from the perspective of different layers—rational, emotional and conative ones—that are evolving taking into account the perceptions of individuals and their previous experience of the consumption process. Positive attitudes about RE utilization are based on prior knowledge and the degree of utility perceived by the consumers. Different research in the field of renewable energy adoption confirms the capacity of individuals’ attitudes to be one of the most significant predictors of adoption behavior [70,71,72,73].

Despite the powerful effect that attitudes can have when we analyze the issue of renewable energy adoption and consumption, it is important to be aware of the fact that, still, factors such as independent variables (age, income, education, gender, etc.) can have their determinant influence on final behavioral intention. For example, in research conducted on Nigerian users, authors have demonstrated that the relationship between determinant factors for consumption, such as perceived relative advantage, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, ease of use, awareness of the impact generated by costs and behavioral intention is mediated by attitudes. The same attitudes do not have a significant impact on the purchase intention on which the effect of the same mentioned variables is manifested [72].

From the perspective of personality traits, researchers have also found direct and positive relationships between traits measured with the “Big Five” model, such as agreeableness and openness, that are positively correlated with all the important variables in the TPB (theory of planned behavior) model, and conscientiousness that is positively correlated with perceived behavioral control [73]. As dominant personality traits can also be correlated with a certain attitude, this means that attitudes can be directed toward a certain behavior intention that is the natural expression of personality traits in action. Attitude is also correlated with the experience of the individual. Research indicates that attitudes towards renewable energy are expressed more clearly when consumers already have information about this technology and have prior experience with it [74].

A final issue that deserves our attention in the light of attitude importance within the intentional behavior field related to renewable energy adoption consists of the perceived behavioral control that can influence the intention for future behavior. Thus, perceived behavioral control can be seen as the degree to which a person appreciates the ability to maintain a constant attitude specific to their engagement in certain behavior. According to Ajzen [75], perceived behavioral control can be taken into account from two perspectives: the perception of the individual about how much control they can have over their behavior and the perception of the degree of how they can perform the behavior.

In the case of renewable energy consumption, we can assess the fact that individuals can feel a certain level of control over a specific renewable energy product or technology, deciding to adopt it if internal and situational factors allowed it (costs, change in living standards, socio-economic variables, ease of use, etc.) [76]. Therefore, perceived behavioral control could be transformed into the ability to form the intent to use small-scale renewable energy [68]. Giving credit to the ideas above we can advance the following hypothesis concerning the influence exerted by attitude toward utilization on behavioral intentions to use renewable energy:

Hypothesis 7 (H7).

Attitude toward RE utilization (ATRE) positively influence Behavioral intentions to use of RE (BIRE).

2.9. Consumption Behavior Regarding Renewable Energy

Behavioral intentions are expressed as a consequence of previous antecedents such as knowledge, usefulness, expectations, beliefs and attitudes. Intentions can be expressed further in the form of behavior specific to loyalty, word of mouth or willingness to pay. In the context of renewable energy consumption, perceived utility of this form of energy from the point of view of the capacity to preserve the environment represents an important antecedent for the behavioral intentions, along with the trust that can elicit a positive behavior of individuals towards a new form of technology [77].

The behavior of individuals has a faster or slower dynamic depending on the complex influence of various internal or external factors. Regarding the perception of the environment, previous behavior, motivations, and attitudes in the form of which the various activities in which they were engaged in protecting the environment were expressed are antecedent elements, which can have a great capacity of prediction for the current behavior, not only in the form of intentional but even of actual behavior [78,79]. The more initiatives people take towards expressing their commitment to environmental issues, the more likely it is that they can adopt green electricity. Normative type motives represent the central elements of Schwartz’s norm activation model. Schwartz emphasizes the idea that a type of prosocial behavior—that is a behavior which has as a central value developed for other people—stems from the moral obligations to perform certain actions relevant to this and capable to also be reflected by the personal norms of the individual. These norms can become active in situations in which individuals are not acting as socially desirable citizens and they have the feeling that they can solve these problems (as efficient outcomes) in one way or another.

Studies on the acceptance of nuclear energy technology revealed that individuals protested against the use of this technology when they perceived greater pressure on their moral standards. This norming became more intense when people perceived more risks associated with nuclear power and fewer benefits. How norms were activated demonstrated greater predictability for individuals’ intention to act against the use of nuclear energy than for acceptance of the technology, demonstrating that a particular moral framework may be more predictive of negative behavior toward a certain technology than for behavior accepting it [80].

Regarding the acceptance process of renewable energy technology, people will become aware of the negative effects of the use of classic “brown” energy on the environment, such as noise and air pollution, climate change and biodiversity damage in certain geographical areas, doubled by those at the social level regarding the reduction in people’s standard of living and security due to the increase in energy costs and the low availability of new classical energy sources. Thus, the way people define their perceptions on the issue of accepting a new technology in the field of energy, on the risks and benefits brought by that technology, shapes the degree of expression of personal norms and their updating with a view to consumption and acceptance behavior. Considering all of the above, there is plenty of proof that can be used to issue the last hypothesis that relates the behavioral intentions to use renewable energy with the consumption behavior regarding renewable energy.

Hypothesis 8 (H8).

Behavioral intentions to use RE (BIRE) positively influence Consumption Behavior regarding RE (CBRE).

The advanced hypotheses configure the possibility of the existence of multiple correlations between the variables considered. As can be seen, the original TAM model indicates the possibility that different possible external variables are behind the influence exerted on the perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use variables. In the case of our research, based on the literature consulted, we identified concern for the environment and knowledge about renewable energy. Compared to the initial version of the TAM model, which assumes the consideration of the simultaneous influence of these variables on attitude, we have introduced into the model the simultaneous influence of three other variables (of course adapted to testing the adoption of renewable energy) of which two—price value for renewable energy and social influence regarding renewable energy—were defined in the context of a model conceptualized and tested after the TAM—UTAUT, version II. The third variable that we took into account regarding the influence of perceived utility—ease of use regarding renewable energy—is found in the TAM model as an antecedent for attitude. Thus, we brought together the postulated influences at the level of the advanced hypotheses and we developed the conceptual model that can be seen in Figure 5 below:

The proposed model wants to answer the research question advanced earlier: does concern for the environment and knowledge about renewable energy mediated through perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage influence a positive attitude towards renewable energy utilization that can further elicit a behavioral intention and a certain consumption behavior regarding renewable energy later?

3. Research Methodology

3.1. Sampling and Data Collection

For the measurement purposes of Romanian consumers′ attitudes towards renewable energy, we have employed quantitative research based on an online survey approach. This is an exploratory study, through which we wanted to identify the attitudes of Romanian consumers of renewable energy, in the context of the price increase against the background of the increased demand for energy that appeared after the COVID crisis and the tensions between the Russian Federation, Ukraine and the European Union.

It is necessary to draw attention from the beginning that this research was carried out with a sample that is not representative at a national level, due to objective limitations from the point of logistic costs. Still, the interpretation given to the obtained results may be useful for policymakers in their effort to draw an efficient and realistic National Energy and Climate Plan anchored in the broader context of the energy problem at the level of European Union, a plan that has to be reliable from the point of view of decisions that can affect the broader population.. Therefore, starting from other studies in the specialized literature, we found that the majority of renewable energy consumers are young and mid-age people, mainly from urban areas, with high or above average levels of income and with a prevalence of men ahead of women [81,82,83,84,85,86,87].

Thus, the structure of the statistical population, and implicitly the sample selected within it, reflects this as can be seen in Table 1.

The sampling base was represented by students and graduates of higher education from four cities and important university centers at the national level: Bucharest, Galați, Alba-Iulia and Constanța, selected taking account the above variables that are prevailing in the scientific literature concerning the consumption of renewable energy.

Thus, after the selection of the statistical population, questionnaires were sent over the Google Forms online platform for completion within August 2022. A total of 312 questionnaires (meaning approximately 22% of the total number of completed questionnaires = 1438) were not able to be taken into consideration for further analysis purposes due to completion errors (incomplete answers for certain questions). The number of valid completed questionnaires that could be considered for further multivariate analysis was 1126.

3.2. Measures

The survey instrument mainly contained 5-point (strongly disagree corresponding to 1 and strongly agree corresponding with 5) Likert scale questions. Data were analyzed using version 26.0 of IBM SPSS software with the corresponding extension Amos 26.0. For the underlying relation between different latent variables shown within the conceptual model proposed in Figure 5, we have used the structural equation model.

SEM was extensively used to analyze the complex inter-relationships between items and constructs, giving the researchers the possibility to assess if the estimated models analyzed are also useful for prediction purposes. As the possibility to establish a model of predictive performance is essential for practical relevance (like managerial importance), the study findings can be generalized beyond the data obtained and the specific context, and SEM proves to be once more an effective analysis method [89].

SEM is an approach able to examine causal relationships and is also capable of testing hypotheses between observed and latent variables in a certain research model. In most cases where the researchers want to test a TAM-related model proposed to be validated, SEM has as the main advantage the possibility to estimate a measurement and structure model, and achieve a good model fit after finishing the analysis and modification. The researchers can also be interested in using SEM for the validation of such a model because SEM can integrate factor analysis, principal component analysis, discriminant analysis, path analysis and multiple regression, and offer multiple criteria to measure the model quality and make an estimation about measurement errors [90,91].

The computing of the Cronbach Alpha coefficient was used to test the viability of the proposed model. Thus, the degree of reliability of the model shows how capable the model is of measuring the intended latent construct. In our case, the internal reliability of the model is achieved as the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient value calculated in SPSS is greater than 0.7, at 0.788. [92,93]. Next, we performed a confirmatory factor analysis, using the Amos 26.0 extension of IBM SPSS software, to assess if there was enough relevance at the level of every relationship inside the tested model. The information provided by Amos’ output, regarding the goodness-of-fit statistics is relevant for the relationship between variables, values that can be seen in Table 2 below.

As can be seen, the information regarding the goodness-of-fit statistics is provided by Amos’ output.

The ratio between CMIN (minimum discrepancy) and DF (degrees of freedom) represents the normed chi-square. If CMIN/DF is less than five, this indicates a reasonable fit [96,97]. It can be observed that in the case of our model, the value obtained for this ratio, 3.407, is less than that indicated above for a reasonable fit.

GFI stands for the Goodness-of-fit index. In the analysis, the adjusted Goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) will be used, that is the value of GFI adjusted for the number of degrees. GFI and AGFI are considered absolute indices [98] and indicate an acceptance of the model if they have values greater than 0.9 [96,99]; this also applies to our model, where GFI has a value of 0.913 and AGFI 0.902.

A very important index is also represented by RMSEA—Root Mean Square Error of Approximation—being considered one of the criteria with a great capacity to provide information in the case of covariance structure modeling. It is an absolute fit index, which can show the degree to which how far a hypothesized model is from a perfect model.

This index is used in tandem with CFI (Comparative Fit Index) and TLI (Tucker–Lewis Index). Some researchers consider that if RMSEA has a value lower than 0.05 and CFI and TLI higher than 0.90 [100,101], it can be considered that the model is good.

Normed Fit Index (NFI) has been the practical criterion of choice for a long time, and together with CFI offers the possibility of measuring the complete covariation of the data, with a value that, if greater than 0.90, is considered representative of a well-fitting model [98].

The Parsimony Goodness-of-Fit Index (PGFI) and the Parsimony Normed Fit Index (PNFI) represent modifications of GFI and NFI [102]. Both of the indexes will require values between zero and one, with values closer to one showing a more parsimonious fit (in the case of our model, we have obtained values of 0.810 for PGFI and 0.857 for PNFI). The complexity of the model is taken into account in the assessment of model fit. These indexes are multiplying the values of GFI and NFI by the parsimony ratio of the degrees of freedom, having the reduction in the original values of the indices to values closer to zero as an effect.

4. Results

As could be seen in the previous subsection where the SEM results were presented in Table 2, all values show a good fit of the model in comparison with the theoretical values in the literature. Table 3 shows the causal relationship between the constructs of the model and the standardized coefficients, and according to the results obtained with the help of the AMOS program, the advanced hypotheses are accepted, which assumes that the initially proposed conceptual model is valid.

When developing the model, we started from the hypothesis according to which there was a direct influence of the variable, Concern for the environment (CE), on the variable, Knowledge about renewable energy (KRE). Following the analysis, it can be found that Concern for the environment (CE) has a significant positive effect on Knowledge about renewable energy (KRE) (β = 0.968; p < 0.01), which means that Hypothesis H1 was therefore supported.

Knowledge about renewable energy (KRE) has a significant positive effect on Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE) (β = 0.106; p < 0.01), which indicates that Hypothesis H2 was also supported.

When we talk about “Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage” (PURE) variable, there is a significant positive effect of the variable “Price value for renewable energy” (PVRE) (β = 0.083; p < 0.01) on it. In the same time, we can see the same significat positive effect of the variable “Social Influence regarding renewable energy” (SIRE) (β = 0.799; p < 0.01), on PURE and the effect of the variable “Ease of use regarding renewable energy” (EURE), (β = 0.112; p < 0.01), on PURE variable, which means that hypotheses H3, H4 and H5 were supported. Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE) has a significant positive effect on Attitude toward renewable energy utilization (ATRE) (β = 1.320; p < 0.01), which means that Hypothesis H6 was therefore supported. Attitude toward renewable energy utilization (ATRE) has a significant positive effect on Behavioral intentions to use renewable energy (BIRE) (β = 0.739; p < 0.01) which also indicates that hypothesis H7 was supported. Behavioral intentions to use renewable energy (BIRE) has a significant positive effect on Consumption behavior regarding renewable energy (CBRE) (β = 1.063; p < 0.05) which indicates that hypothesis H8 was also supported.

It is highlighted that among the three variables that act simultaneously on the variable Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE), meaning Price value for renewable energy (PVRE), Social Influence regarding renewable energy (SIRE), and Ease of use regarding renewable energy (EURE), the biggest effect was exerted by the variable Social Influence regarding renewable energy (SIRE) (β = 0.799), which denotes the fact that social factors are mainly manifested in the case of Romanian consumers, similarly to the trends highlighted in the scientific literature in the field, at least at the European level [10,11,12,13].

Additionally, at the level of the entire model, the greatest effect is exerted by Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE) on Attitude toward renewable energy utilization (ATRE) (β = 1.320), which indicates the exercise of a natural mechanism, validated also by the scientific literature as well, through which the attitude towards a new technology manifests itself more positively in the context in which people develop increasingly strong positive perceptions of the actual usefulness of that technology.

5. Discussion

The validation of the conceptual proposed model allows us to think that there is a certain mechanism that relies on considered variables.

A strong correlation could be observed between, respectively, Concern for the Environment (CE) and Knowledge about Renewable Energy (KRE), but somewhat surprisingly less intense between KRE and Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE). Concern for the Environment (CE) is a variable that can manifest itself mainly in the context of the updating or awareness of the inner norms of the individual, of his lifestyle, and/or of the cultural conditions related to the issue of the environment [103]. As individuals show a greater degree of interest in environmental issues, the accumulated information is naturally structured and integrated within a specific knowledge relevant to this interest. In the majority of consumption occasions related to products or services that interfere with environmental issues, this type of knowledge is at the basis of consumers’ decision-making processes and their subsequent behavior [104,105]. The weaker correlation between Knowledge about Renewable Energy (KRE) and Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE) is interesting because the natural tendency to increase the perceived usefulness of new technology can rather manifest itself in the context in which the amount of information that the individual has about the respective technology also increases [106]. We can explain to some extent the weaker influence of this variable through the prism of the rather strong influence exerted by Social influence regarding RE (SIRE). In the case of Romanian consumers, these influences of the social groups of belonging or reference exist prominently in the case of a variety of consumption contexts, the one relating to renewable energy being particularly affected by the pressure of social norms regarding sustainable consumption [103]. In fact, at the level of the current research, a short comparative analysis reveals the fact that among all the variables that influence the perceived usefulness of RE use in the model, Social influence regarding RE (SIRE) has the strongest influence on Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE) compared to Knowledge about Renewable Energy (KRE), Price value for RE (PVRE) and Ease of use regarding RE (EURE). This confirms to us, at least at the present moment, the importance of social factors—the perceived social norm that is highlighted within the UTAUT (Unified theory of acceptance and use of technology) models 1 and 2 being important for the acceptance of new technologies [107,108]. In addition, the problem of a decisive consumption to protect the environment is all the more closely related to the pressure from the social level that may exist regarding the adoption of new technologies capable of managing this aspect efficiently.

The very high intensity measured in the case of the influence exerted by the Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE) variable on Attitude toward RE utilization (ATRE) it is partially due to the fact that PURE functions as a kind of mediating variable concerning the other variables considered antecedents Knowledge about Renewable Energy (KRE), Price value for RE (PVRE), Social influence regarding RE (SIRE) and Ease of use regarding RE (EURE) and the attitude towards the use of RE (ATRE).

The results obtained in our research are in line with the results of other studies in the specialized literature that have identified either direct or mediated relationships between Ease of use regarding RE (EURE) and Attitude toward RE utilization (ATRE) or Social influence regarding RE (SIRE) and ATRE [72,109,110].

The influence exerted by Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE) on Attitude toward RE utilization (ATRE) is decisive for the effort to understand the complex mechanism of adopting the use of renewable energy in the current socioeconomic context. The different “layers” on which we can build attitudes—cognitive, affective, and conative—are influenced by the perceived utility of renewable energy consumption in a differentiated way; the cumulative effect, according to the validated model, is considerable.

Regarding the influence exerted by Attitude toward RE utilization (ATRE) at the Behavioral intentions to use RE (BIRE) level, here too, a high intensity corresponding to a β value of 0.739 could be found, which denotes that the clear expression of favorable attitudes for the adoption of renewable energy consumption correlates with a well-represented intentional behavior. Further, behavioral intentions are also positively correlated, at a higher level of intensity, with the actual consumption behavior that consumers adopt. This leads us to the idea that the necessary prerequisites exist for most of the intentions to turn into actual consumption behavior.

A general look at the validated model indicates the particular importance of variables such as CE (Concern for the Environment), Social influence regarding RE (SIRE), Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE), Attitude toward RE utilization (ATRE) and Behavioral intentions to use RE (BIRE) within the mechanism of adoption of renewable energy by the investigated consumers. The influence exerted by the factors of a social nature corroborated with the concern for the environment (the interest currently given to environmental problems or the importance of their conservation) is decisive for the entire process of adopting renewable energy consumption.

6. Conclusions

6.1. Theoretical, Managerial and Policy Implications

Our research comes in line with other relevant studies from scientific literature in the field, when we talk about the influence exerted by the considered variables—Concern for the Environment (CE), Social influence regarding RE (SIRE), Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE), Attitude toward RE utilization (ATRE), etc. [111,112,113].

In the process of forming attitudes regarding the consumption of renewable energy, several factors contribute essentially to the development of positive attitudes towards this consumption. Among them, social norms, congruence with personal norms and the interest shown towards this issue are essential. The theoretical model proposed and validated following the conducted study suggests that, at the level of the formation of attitudes toward the consumption of renewable energy, consumers attach great importance to the perceived usefulness of this new technology. The usefulness is also increased due to the conjunctural factors that manifest themselves in the current conditions of complex crises—the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian-Ukrainian war, etc.—that led to the manifestation of an energy crisis that risks to prolong itself and to cause multiple negative effects in a cascade at the level of national economies, affecting both companies, institutions, and individual consumers.

Regarding the management of organizations that are implied at the level of renewable energy production and distribution, the research results can suggest the need to implement promotion strategies built on the idea of the need to support local communities, the promotion of common values centered on the protection of the environment and the health of community members, strategies that increase the level of awareness of the population regarding the need to adopt responsible and assumed behaviors regarding the environment and one’s standard of living. The assessment of consumers’ attitudes regarding renewable energy allows managers to approach, from a viable position, the correct positioning of the offer of their organizations concerning the classic energy sources available. If the pressure of the energy crisis generated by the political instability specific to armed conflicts, impossible to predict in terms of evolution and finality, will continue to grow, the active companies in the field must communicate this element that generates competitive advantages—the independence of energy production from the classic exhaustible sources (oil, coal, gas, etc.) and its stability despite the gloomy forecasts. Consumers are constantly looking for practical ways to increase comfort in consumption, to reduce the risk of dissatisfaction, thus the utility perceived for these services can be maximized around the uncertainty generated by the exploitation of classic energy sources. Additionally, the communication efforts have to be focused on the price value of these services and the proper ease of use.

In order to better asses the contribution of the present research to the body of knowledge regarding consumption of renewable energy at the level of European Union, we can observe the findings within the following table presented in Appendix B.

The research results, from the perspective of the relationships of influence between the variables within the model, offer the possibility of advancing some proposals aimed at promoting the consumption of renewable energy among the population. As long as the perceived utility of renewable energy consumption is largely influenced by social pressure and adjacent to the level of knowledge about this type of energy, it is justified to organize promotional campaigns specific to social marketing, which emphasize social responsibility and the need for the sustainable behavior of the population. These campaigns must benefit from the large-scale involvement of energy producers on the one hand and non-governmental organizations dedicated to the issue of sustainability and environmental protection on the other. Policymakers can create better awareness about the benefits of renewable energy in the long run, with a promotional and educational mechanism oriented toward children and young people, to create a “social” positive perception and even expectations for the young people and future generations that can borrow and integrate green energy consumption within their lifestyle and everyday life. Because of the present crisis, a very efficient method to ensure the adoption of green energy is the possibility of the government to provide loan systems to give financial support to consumers at the initiation of the adoption of the new technology.

6.2. Research Limitations and Future Directions

The limits of our research consider several elements as follows:

• -. Sampling at the national level must include both urban and rural areas, where the local environmental conditions and climate allow the relatively easy implementation of several technologies for obtaining renewable energy (solar panels, wind power plants, etc.), which qualifies the population from the area as persons directly interested in this issue; in addition, the stratified sampling must reflect the real structure of the mature population, because even in the international specialized literature, correlations were observed between descriptive variables such as sex, age, education, occupation and variables that measured the adoption of technology, its usefulness or the availability to pay an additional price

• -. The complexity of the variables that are manifested in the consumption of renewable energy requires the approach of this issue in a framework of several types of research related to each other, which highlight certain variables and the relationship between them; the administration of a single questionnaire greatly limits the amount of information that must be analyzed and evaluated.

• -. Given that this research is exploratory, our approach only wanted to raise an alarm that when adopting a technology at the level of a country, it must start from the level of knowledge of the population regarding the new technology and from its attitude towards technology. The fact that it is absolutely necessary to adopt new technologies that lead to the boosting of the consumption of renewable energies was demonstrated by means of the studies presented in the introduction section of the article and by the alarm signals raised by the various decision-making institutions in Romania [114]. In this context, we wanted to carry out such a study that would explore the attitude of Romanian consumers and raise an alarm signal related to the fact that studies are needed at a national level on large and representative samples in order to be able to take the measures that are required so that the scenarios in which the Romanian consumer can pay a reasonable price for electricity by the year 2030 are achievable. The present research remains a viable initiative at the level of an exploratory research because ensuring such a level of representativeness is not possible without the mobilization of considerable funds.

Thus, the research results must be interpreted subject to the specification of these limitations, specific for the opinions of Romanian consumers on renewable energy. Despite this, the value of the research is not diminished because the attitudinal model toward the acceptance of technology tested at the level of people that are already accustomed to renewable energy can be considered a starting point for policymakers, in order to give more credit to the perceptions and future intentions toward renewable energy at the level of the entire population. If we take into consideration the diffusion of technology theory, and the possibility that people that are already accustomed to renewable energy consumption can become opinion leaders for their reference or social groups to which they belong, the results of the research make sense from the point of view that such an attitudinal model can be replicated by non-users of renewable energy to the pressure given by the traditional brown energy prices and the natural phenomena regarding social desirability seeking.

A closer look at the relationship validated within the model can highlight specific aspects that can be interpreted at the broader population level. The relationship between the degree of Knowledge about Renewable Energy (KRE) and Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE) is not so pronounced if we think about the broader population.

The policymakers in the field of energy have to take into account the possibility that the proportion of individuals manifesting a strong and measurable interest in RE is lower at the level of the broader population. From the point of view of the relationship between Social influence regarding RE (SIRE) and Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE), the results that show the strongest influence of this variable compared with the influence exerted by Knowledge about Renewable Energy (KRE), Price value for RE (PVRE) or Ease of use regarding RE (EURE) can be generalized at the level of broader Romanian population due to the fact that Romanian consumers are quite responsive to social influence [115,116,117]. So, in the light of the above, policymakers can give credit to social influence within their effort to develop actions for the National Energy and Climate Plan in order to manage the communication with the broader population and achieve communication objectives.

The results regarding the relationship between Perceived Utility regarding RE usage (PURE) and Attitude toward RE utilization (ATRE) is consistent at the level of the research model and can be generalized up to a certain level for the broader population because PURE is like a mediating variable with an effect on the others variables (Knowledge about Renewable Energy (KRE), Price value for RE (PVRE), Social influence regarding RE (SIRE) and Ease of use regarding RE (EURE)).

A cautious approach must be taken regarding the influence of Attitude toward RE utilization (ATRE) on Behavioral intentions to use RE (BIRE) at the level of the broader population. If at an individual level this relationship is easy to understand, at a broader level the influence may be diluted due to mass-related factors (situational, market pressure, etc.). Again, in this case, policymakers can use this information in order to impel the use and consumption of RE putting emphasis on current factors such as the energy crisis, geo-political situation, etc. As a general conclusion, the above ideas can improve the contribution of the paper by expanding the scope of the research findings in a manner that is potentially actionable for policymakers.

Here is why, as possible future research directions, qualitative research can be considered in the form of in-depth interviews with people in leadership and decision-making positions to reveal their attitudes and perceptions towards the phenomenon of renewable energy. Additionally, the same types of research are required on final consumers, to better define the variables that measure the perceived usefulness, ease of use and the correlation of the adoption of renewable energy with the perceptions of the emerging energy crisis based on the current political-economic phenomena. An interesting direction of research could be the one to determine which categories of information are essential for household consumers when they translate their concern for the environment into knowledge related to renewable energy.

The assumption of a sustainable consumption behavior that involves, among other things, the consumption of renewable energy, is a desire for many advanced states as well as those that do not yet have the necessary resources to support such consumption at the level of the masses.

Regardless of the level of development, the huge pressure of a possible large-scale energy crisis makes the adoption of renewable energy a viable solution for many states whose population has the appropriate level of culture and civilization to understand the multiple positive implications of the adoption of this technology on a large scale.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.P.G., A.M., C.A.P., A.E.M. and D.A.G.; methodology, I.P.G., A.M., C.A.P., A.E.M. and D.A.G.; software, I.P.G. and C.A.P.; validation, I.P.G., A.M., C.A.P., A.E.M. and D.A.G.; formal analysis, I.P.G., A.M., C.A.P., A.E.M. and D.A.G.; data curation, I.P.G., A.M., C.A.P., A.E.M. and D.A.G.; writing—original draft preparation, I.P.G., A.M., C.A.P., A.E.M. and D.A.G.; writing—review and editing, A.E.M. and D.A.G.; funding acquisition, C.A.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Figures and Tables

Figure 1. Change in electricity prices for households consumers (%) in the EU. Source: [5].

Figure 2. Change in electricity prices for households consumers (%) in the EU. Source: [6].

Figure 3. Inland consumption and production of hard coal, EU level (1990–2021) million tons. Source: [8].

Figure 4. Technology Acceptance Model, adaptation after model proposed by Davies in 1989. Source: [28].

Figure 5. The proposed research conceptual model.

Table 1

Sample structure (N = 1126).

Variable	Items	N	%
Gender	Female	428	38%
	Male	698	62%
Level of finalized studies	Secondary school	243	22%
	Higher education	500	44%
	Master degree	184	16%
	Doctoral degree	199	18%
Monthly Income of the respondent *	under 1500 lei	63	5%
	1501–2500 lei	75	7%
	2501–3500 lei	195	17%
	3501–4500 lei	314	28%
	4501–6000 lei	322	29%
	Above 6000 lei	157	14%
Age	18–25 years of age	203	18%
	26–35 years of age	232	21%
	36–45 years of age	389	34%
	46–55 years of age	209	19%
	56–65 years of age	93	8%
Stable residence	House on the ground	409	36%
	House of flats	717	64%

* the income groups expressed in Euro are: under approx. EUR 301; approx. EUR 302–503; approx. EUR 504–705; approx. EUR 706–907; approx.: EUR 908–1211; EUR 1211 and over; the net average income in Romania being EUR 808.98 [88].

Table 2

Goodness-of-fit indexes.

Model-Fit Index	Absolute Index
	p *	CMIN/DF **	RMR *	GFI ***	AGFI ***	RMSEA *	NFI ***
Structural model	0.000	3.407	0.006	0.913	0.902	0.046	0.913
Model-Fit Index	Comparative Index				Parsimony Index
	RFI ***	IFI ***	TLI ***	CFI ***	PGFI ****	PNFI ***	PCFI ***
Research obtained values	0.908	0.937	0.933	0.937	0.810	0.857	0.879

Note: Theoretical statistical values * < 0.05; ** < 5; *** > 0.90; **** > 0.50; [94,95].

Table 3

The structural model results.

Hypotheses	Correlations	β	p	Std.Error	C.R.	Decision
H1	CE → KRE	0.968	0.000	0.044	21.977	Supported *
H2	KRE → PURE	0.106	0.008	0.022	4.818	Supported *
H3	PVRE → PURE	0.083	0.000	0.010	8.203	Supported *
H4	SIRE → PURE	0.799	0.000	0.015	54.607	Supported *
H5	EURE → PURE	0.112	0.000	0.003	37.333	Supported *
H6	PURE → ATRE	1.320	0.000	0.097	13.653	Supported *
H7	ATRE → BIRE	0.739	0.000	0.074	9.953	Supported *
H8	BIRE → CBRE	1.063	0.032	0.046	23.105	Supported *

Note: * Statistical significance of parameter estimates test of the statistic critical ratio (C.R.) needs to be >1.96 significant at CR > 1.96, p < 0.01 [66].

Appendix A. Constructs and Items from the Research Questionnaire

Figure 5. The proposed research conceptual model.

Appendix B. Renewable Energy Consumption in European Union—Comparison with Present Research

Authors	Findings	Added Value within Present Paper (Completion and/or Development of Ideas)
Baruk and Goliszek, 2022 [104]	- There is a dependence between the self-assessment of the level of knowledge about green energy and the importance attributed to the sources of energy used; the associations with it; - There is a dependence between the importance assigned to the sources of energy used and the associations with green energy (mainly positive ones) for P - olish young men.	- Knowledge about renewable energy (KRE) has a significant positive effect on Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE) - Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE) has a significant positive effect on Attitude toward renewable energy utilization (ATRE)
Dincă et al., 2022 [117]	- Environmental awareness, perceived consumer effectiveness and a collectivistic perspective affect individuals in implementing energy-saving habits; - Resistance to change and perceived costs were identified as having a negative and significant impact on the individuals’ implementation of renewable energy consumption habits	- Concern for the environment (CE) on the variable Knowledge about renewable energy (KRE) - Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE) has a significant positive effect on Attitude toward renewable energy utilization (ATRE) - Behavioral intentions to use renewable energy (BIRE) has a significant positive effect on Consumption behavior regarding renewable energy (CBRE)
Tutak, M., and Brodny, J. (2022) [118]	- A significant increase in the consumption of energy from renewable energy sources in countries in the European Union in the studied period, as well as significant differences in the use of this energy among the studied countries, their groups and sectors; - Renewable-energy-source-based energy consumption has a positive impact on economic growth, the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and the reduction in conventional energy consumption in practically all European Union countries	- positive trend regarding renewable energy acceptance - Social Influence regarding renewable energy (SIRE) positively influenced Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE) - Behavioral intentions to use renewable energy (BIRE) has a significant positive effect on Consumption behavior regarding renewable energy (CBR)
Peng, D., and Poudineh, R. (2019) [119]	- Misalignments occur between the integration of renewables and a wide range of existing market coordination modules, including the wholesale market, the retail market, and network regulation; - Misalignments also exist between member states’ renewable support schemes and EU-level coordination modules.	- At the level of Romanian market, there is a unitary perception upon RE. - Romania has achieved its target regarding RE implementation until 2030.
Oosthuizen, A.M. and Inglesi-Lotz, R. (2022) [120]	- Indicating that changes in the policy discourse toward a RE target contribute to RE’s adoption; - This analysis finds evidence of a persistent effect of continuous commitment to renewables. A threshold effect is observed for greenhouse gas emissions, indicating that social awareness about climate change can only influence RE positively up to a certain level.	- Social Influence regarding renewable energy (SIRE) positively influenced Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE).
Kaldellis, J. K et al., 2012 [121]	- At the level of Greek market, high levels of acceptability of renewable energy applications have been encountered although the need for additional public information regarding RES exploitation has also been designated. - The area already has remarkable RES-based installations - Respondents are familiar with long-term operation of a lignite-based power station	- Knowledge about renewable energy (KRE) has a significant positive effect on Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE). - Ease of use regarding renewable energy (EURE) has a significant positive effect on Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE).
Rakowska.,J. and Ozimek I., 2021 [122]	- Within the Polish market, local authorities’ attitudes were rather careful, caused by the financial constraints of local budgets and the scope of obligatory tasks, which made renewable energy investments not the most urgent. - Public aid was a factor significantly affecting local authorities’ behavior. It triggered local authorities’ renewable energy initiatives, increasing the number and scope of renewable energy investments as well cooperation with other municipalities and local communities.	- Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE) has a significant positive effect on Attitude toward renewable energy utilization (ATRE). - Social Influence regarding renewable energy (SIRE) positively influenced Perceived utility regarding renewable energy usage (PURE). - There is already a certain degree of information on the market regarding RE.
Ribeiro, F. et al., 2018 [123]	- Methodology for public perception and awareness assessment, involving an initial phase of data collection by means of a survey, followed by a phase of regression model construction resulting in predictive models of expected perceptions and attitudes towards RET in Portugal. - It was shown that education is particularly relevant for justifying economic, environmental and social perceptions and these ones are also significant variables for the acceptance of technologies. - Acceptance increases with age, decreases with educational level and is greater among males - Older people are more likely to assign higher ratings than the younger ones. People whose municipality does not have RET technology are less likely to assign higher ratings than the others.	- Consumption is influenced by level of education, income and age of respondents. - Positive RE consumption adoption is present in the context of social influence regarding RE consumption.
Tutak, M. et al., 2020 [124]	- Based on the determined values of 13 indicators versus the gross domestic product and the number of inhabitants of the countries in question, these countries were also divided into similar groups with the use of Kohonen artificial neural networks. - Sustainable energy development according to demographic potential of the EU-27 countries: Cluster 1: Belgium, Denmark, Germany, France, Austria, Finland, Sweden; Cluster 2: Czech Republic, Estonia, Ireland, Cyprus, Netherlands; Cluster 3: Spain, Luxembourg, Italy, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia; Cluster 4: Bulgaria, Greece, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Portugal, Romania. - Sustainable energy development profile expressed - by similar values of indicators of this development in relation to the GDP value: Cluster 1: Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Spain, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands; Cluster 2: Austria, Portugal, Finland, Sweden; Cluster 3: Czech Republic, Greece, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia; Cluster 4: Bulgaria, Estonia, Poland, Cyprus.	- Romania has achieved its goals of RE development for 2030 target at the level of EU. - Population present a notable level of notoriety with RE

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