DESCARTES ON EDUCATION: AUTODIDACTICISM OR THE TRADITIONAL MORAL METHOD?

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to analyse Descartes' concept of education. In the history of Philosophy, scholar such as Norman Kemp Smith (1952), Leon Roth (1937), Paul J. Bagley (1996) and Anthony Kenny (1972) who have extensively studied Descartes' philosophy did not pay adequate attention to an integral part of his conception of education especially the area of self-education. Even Sergio Garcia who did some studies along this line focused on the moral philosophy of René Descartes. This paper intends to fill this gap. The aim of this paper is to philosophically engage the discourse of Descartes' conception of self-education and examine how his methodology had opened another approach to education in a way that is different from the traditional approach which is based on moral. The philosophical importance of this autodidacticism cannot be overemphasised because it is even more obvious in modern scientific invention where good number of inventors were self-educated. Our aim in this paper is to revisit and analyse Cartesian philosophy in a way that will reveal how the formal, informal and autodidactic methods of education are derived from his works. This paper concludes by showing how and why Descartes valued self-education because of the practical wisdom that is obtained through real-life experience that comes from personal learning.

Headnote

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to analyse Descartes' concept of education. In the history of Philosophy, scholar such as Norman Kemp Smith (1952), Leon Roth (1937), Paul J. Bagley (1996) and Anthony Kenny (1972) who have extensively studied Descartes' philosophy did not pay adequate attention to an integral part of his conception of education especially the area of self-education. Even Sergio Garcia who did some studies along this line focused on the moral philosophy of René Descartes. This paper intends to fill this gap. The aim of this paper is to philosophically engage the discourse of Descartes' conception of self-education and examine how his methodology had opened another approach to education in a way that is different from the traditional approach which is based on moral. The philosophical importance of this autodidacticism cannot be overemphasised because it is even more obvious in modern scientific invention where good number of inventors were self-educated. Our aim in this paper is to revisit and analyse Cartesian philosophy in a way that will reveal how the formal, informal and autodidactic methods of education are derived from his works. This paper concludes by showing how and why Descartes valued self-education because of the practical wisdom that is obtained through real-life experience that comes from personal learning.

Keywords: Descartes, Moral Education, Self-education, Autodidacticism, Scientific education.

Introduction

The questions; 'what is knowledge?', 'how do we come to know?', 'what is the relationship between education and knowledge?', and 'what is the aim of education?' are fundamental questions that have been attempted at different epochs by scholars. The ancient Scholars such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle have at one time or the other addressed these questions. Nevertheless, it should be noted that these same questions are still in search for answers up till the present moment. In the modern time, Rene Descartes' description as a phenomenon in this age is no exaggeration because of the way he had done justice to the above questions in his philosophy. In fact, Descartes may be better described as a modern time intellectual giant due to his works, achievements and contributions to the world of intellectualism, education and entire body of knowledge.

To many, Rene Descartes is regarded as the founder of modern philosophy because he performed a great service to philosophy, and one which makes him still useful to all students of the subject. As a matter of fact, Cartesian contribution to Mathematics brought him fame among the students of Mathematics due to his invention of Cartesian graph. Descartes ontological proof for the existence of God could not be overemphasized in anyway. Even in the World of Science, Descartes also have scientific inventions to his credit. All the above intellectual process were demonstrated in Descartes Conception of education.

My objective in this paper primary is to philosophically investigate Descartes' conception of education. The paper is divided into four main sections. Section one considers the crisis of defining education. Section two discusses the traditional and moral arguments on education. Meanwhile, section three focuses on how self-education is derived from Descartes' work. The last section mainly engages brief critical reflections.

Crisis of Defining Education as a Concept

Defining the word or concept "education" is a problematic task for scholars either in the contemporary time or in the ancient period. But one thing is essential, that education involves learning or being schooled in a particular way. Etymologically, education as a word came from a Latin word e-ducere, mean "to lead out". Arguably, this may be the reason why Descartes prefer the system of education that will lead one out of ignorance, dogmatism and mere opinion of one's teachers. The New International Webster's Comprehensive-Dictionary defines education as the systematic development and cultivation of the mind and other natural Powers. According to P.M. Lohithakshan; Education is the process of developing the potentials of man to the optimum level in order to enable him to lead a productive and happy life in society.1 For Confucius (S51- 478BC); The aim of education according to him is to prepare individual for noble living. In John Dewey's conception; Inquiry is a problem solving activity, and education focuses on inquiry and continuous experimentation aimed at furthering the development of individuals and at helping them meet their individual needs.2

For Fafunwa,

Education is the aggregate of all the processes by which a child or young develop the abilities, attitudes and other forms of behaviour which are of positive value to the society to which he lives; that is to say, it is a process of transmitting culture in terms of continuity and growth for disseminating knowledge either to ensure social control or to guarantee rational direction of the society or both.3

On a general note, education could be described as information about or training in a particular-subject. Education is an enlightening experience as well as the theory and practice of teaching. Education is the systematic development and cultivation of the mind and other natural powers. Education is the impartation of knowledge as well as the knowledge and skills resulting from instruction, training and studying.

Education: Traditional and Moral Stand Point

Traditionally, education is mostly conceived from a moral stand point. That is, education is closely linked with moral upbringing or it is a means to a certain ends which is good and moral life. In other words, there are moral education and mental education. However, mental education is also expected to lead one to moral education. In Turan's analysis of Plato, Plato's educational thoughts cannot be separated from his other works. Education should be understood in the context of ethical and political consideration in his ideal state that all men entitled to happiness and good life. His educational views are philosophical and theoretical.4 When Williams was making his own comment on Plato's theory of education, he argues that "The role of education in this state is 'to assure the success and perpetuity of a state'5 From the above view, it is obvious that Plato's idea of education has a direct link with ethics. According to Aristotle as quoted by Perry; anyone who is to listen intelligently to lectures about what is noble and just and generally, about the subjects of political science must have been brought up in good habits6. The import of the above quotation is that an educated person is a fellow with goods moral upbringing. However, should learning process be limited to moral upbringing? Or is moral education the hallmark of education? This I think is not true because there are other forms of education. Plato at some point describes education in terms of gymnastics and music. According to him, "What is the education? Isn't difficult to find a better one that discovered over a great expanse of time? It is, of course, gymnastic for bodies and music for the soul." -"Yes, it is." -"Won't we begin educating in music before gymnastic?" -"Of course" (Plato, 1991, 54). Analysing the definition above, one will discover that Plato's definition of education also tend towards formal traditional or moral education. This is so because it is believed that physical exercise has a way of making the body light which could in turn affect human behaviour. Meanwhile, music is also there to educate the soul which could also tell on human behaviour as well.

Even Aristotle also established a link between education and ethics in Chapter two of BKVIII. According to him, "if we look at the actual practice, the result is confusing. It throws no light on the problem whether these should be training in those pursuits which are useful in life, or which make for goodness, or those which go beyond the ordinary run [of knowledge]." (Aristotle, 1995, 229, 1337a33)

P.M. Lohithakshan sees education in a similar light. For him; Education is the process of developing the potentials of man to the optimum level in order to enable him to lead a productive and happy life in society.7 In Pablo's analysis of John Dewey's conception, inquiry is a problem-solving activity, and education focuses on inquiry and continuous experimentation aimed at furthering the development of individuals and at helping them meet their individual needs.8 Dewey's notion of education is akin to Kofi Annan's comment on education. For Annan,

"Literacy is a bride from misery to hope. It is a tool for daily life in modern society. It is a bulwark against poverty, and a building block of development, an essential complement to investments in roads, dams, clinics and factories. Literacy is a platform for democratization, and a vehicle for the promotion of cultural and national identity. Especially for girls and women, it is an agent of family health and nutrition. For everyone, everywhere, literacy is, finally, the road to human progress and the means through which every man, woman and child can realize his or her full potential."- Kofi Annan

Is Annan comment above correct? I think it is correct because every society is now placing emphasis on the education of the citizens. You discover that it is your level of education that will determine how much you could fit-in in the contemporary society.

Descartes' Conception of Education

According to Toran, Plato and Aristotle are the founders of the theory of education.9 But a deep search into Descartes' works reveals that his contributions to education cannot be overemphasised. Education in Cartesian conception has an epistemological foundation and explanation. It does not rely on ethical foundation like the traditional type. Descartes conceived education as that which is founded on certainty and which is universally true since universal truth is founded on universal premise for knowledge and knowledge claim that is true in all places. To be educated in Cartesian conception is to live a life that is beyond doubt and to be identified with that which is certain. That is, to attain a level where everything doubtable is removed. The method of doubt as it were is a powerful weapon use by Descartes with which he was able to establish that which is certain and indubitable. According to Descartes; I shall proceed by setting aside all that in which the least doubt could be supposed to exist, just as if I had discovered that it was absolutely false; and I shall even follow in this road until I have met with something which is certain.10

For Descartes, education, knowledge and information are gotten through reason since senses could be deceptive. Thus, clear and distinct idea furnish us with what we claim to know. Descartes pick out his first piece of certain knowledge which is Cogito - Ergo sum (I think, therefore, I exist), and use it in the formulation of his criterion for knowledge. According to Descartes, "I think, therefore I exist" is our foundation stone, our first certain truth.11 Thus, Descartes seems to suggest that education must have a firm foundation-upon which our knowledge claim and information acquired can be based.

In Cartesian Epistemological inquiry and philosophical investigation of that which is certain and indubitable Descartes seems to conceive education in two phases. This I will like to call information and formal education in my own construction.

Descartes on Informal and Formal Types of Education

Formal education is the process of acquiring and developing quality or skill through formal system of schooling. Meanwhile, informal type of education could be a form of home training, cultural or religious education where moral will be thought. The informal education in Cartesian conception are those things or beliefs that we have earlier held as truth from our childhood days mostly from parents, religious background, and so on. In other words, since education involves culture and nurture, this informal type of education consists of the belief that culture furnishes or nurtures us with. This kind of education and belief, for Descartes must be subjected to doubt. According to Descartes in Meditation I; it is now some years since I detected how many were the false beliefs that I had from my earliest youth admitted as true, and how doubtful was everything I had since constructed on this basis.12 This involves all the beliefs that are constructed on the senses.

Descartes on Self-education

Self-education as we understand it is a form of autodidacticism. Selfdirected learning. That is education without the guidance of masters. Descartes regarded this type of education to consist of the belief that is founded on certainty. This is a self - acquired belief that is indubitable. Descartes claimed that his own formal schooling provided him with very little substance other than a foundation of mathematics.13 The above quotation is a clear indication that Descartes valued self-education than other types of education. Why is this so? The reason is simply that it allowed him to survive, be independent, and have enough background knowledge to engage in deep, meaningful solitary study. It should however be noted that education involves the process of acquiring and developing qualities or skill. Thus, there are several methods by which education can be acquired. In Cartesian conception, the best method by which we can acquire education is through the "method of doubt". That is, we subject all things all beliefs to sceptical doubt in order to arrive at a conclusion that is absolutely certain true and indubitable. Notably, Descartes was able to carry through his project of deconstruction with this method of doubt, and he was able to establish or arrive at Cogito with this same method.

According to Descartes,

But inasmuch as reason already persuades me that I ought no less carefully to withhold my assent from matters which are not entirely certain and indubitable than from those which appear to me manifestly to be false if I am able to find in each one some reason to doubt.14

Thus, Descartes was able to adopt the method of doubt to discard all forms of beliefs and education he had earlier acquired through senses so arrive at the belief or knowledge of that which is certain and indubitable through reason.

In other words, to be educated in Cartesian conception is to remove everything that can be doubted in order to arrive at the knowledge of that which is certain and beyond doubt. In Descartes' view, the journey to certainty starts somewhere and what he adopted as a way to certainty is the method of doubt, whereby, separating what is certain from what is probable and separating what is probable from mere customs and superstitions.

According to Paul Bagley, In part one of the Discourse on the Method, Descartes argued that his education (I think both formal and informal that is gotten from parents or religious background) had failed him by not providing a clear and certain knowledge of all that is.15 The import of this is that it is the traditional informal and even formal type of education that is founded on false belief are subjected to doubt. The formal type of education is founded on certainty and universal truth takes the process of deconstruction. In other words, since education involves cultivation, this type of education involves the process of refinement. This kind of education is a product of rationality and thought experimentation. For this singular reason, Descartes was regarded as a deconstructionist. According to Descartes;...I was convinced that I must once for all seriously undertake to rid myself of all the opinions which I had formerly accepted, and commence to build a new from the foundation, if I wanted to establish any firm and permanent structure in the science.16

Thus, Descartes' intention to build a permanent structure for scientific education or knowledge of science culminates in his inclination to create a universal truth and idea that will be acceptable in all places due to its clarity and distinctness.

Intuition is another relevant factor in Cartesian conception of education. Intuition is the ability to understand something immediately without the need for conscious reasoning. Intuition is relevant in Descartes conception of education since Descartes is looking for what is universally true in all places. According to Descartes in Cartesian Studies written by Alexander; the truth of particular intuitions is never called in question, only the universal trustworthiness of intuition, and in vindicating this universal trustworthiness only individual intuitions are utilized.17 Thus, it can be concluded that one can be educated through the power of intuition since education is the development of the mind.

Central to the heart of Cartesian concept of education is the proposition; "Cogito ergo sum". I think therefore, I exist". For Descartes, he that thinks necessarily exists. This for Descartes is the first known truth and the foundation of any proper education that is absolutely certain, true and indubitable. According to Descartes; "I think, therefore I exist" is our foundation stone, our first certain truth.18 Thus, he claims he has discovered not only an example of certain knowledge, but distinguishing mark of certain knowledge. In Descartes' view, education that is founded on this view must be a proper form of education that is founded on this view must be a proper farm of education that is not error prone.

It has been established earlier that education involves cultivation and development of the mind. Thus, education in Cartesian view consists of the information and the idea that our mind furnish us with. In other words, our mind is developed, cultivated or educated through the idea of external world that is created in us. Descartes employed "Representative theory of perception" to further explain how our mind is being cultivated by of external world created in us. According to E.Z. Ashworth; Descartes adopted a representative theory of Sense perception by which ideas are a necessary intermediary between the mind and what is external to it.19 Thus, since education involves learning that produces knowledge, Descartes believed that ideas were the only objects with which we were immediately acquainted. In other words, there is a systematic development and cultivation of the mind. Descartes felt that any theory about the external reference to the mind and the nature of their relationship with other realities had to be consequent upon a thorough examination of ideas and their properties.

In Descartes view, to be educated is to think mathematically. That is, to think with accuracy and precision since Mathematical truth are universal truth with accuracy and precision. Mathematical knowledge is very paramount in Cartesian conception of education because Descartes believes that education should be acquired step by step. This made him to embrace mathematics that proceeded step by step to arrive at its truth which is universally valid. According to Alexander, Descartes raised a question that can I doubt two and three are five?20 Descartes admits in the meditations that the opposite of this arithmetic proposition is a manifest contradiction and, therefore, is itself indubitable.

To further see how Descartes gave primacy to self-education, over and above formal education, he argues;

The ordinary philosophy which is taught in the schools and universities is by contrast merely a collection of opinions that are for the most part doubtful, as is shown by the continual debates in which they are thrown back and forth. They are quite useless, moreover, as long experience has shown to us; for no one has ever succeeded in deriving any practical benefit from 'prime matteť, 'substantial forms', 'occult qualities', and the like. So it is quite irrational for those who have learnt such opinions, which they themselves confess to be uncertain, to condemn others who are trying to discover more certain ones.21

However, does that means Descartes is completely against the formal system of education? The answer is no. Descartes introduced Mathematical truth into his conception of education because such truth is indubitable. However, Descartes pointed out a serious shortcoming even in mathematics. The problem is that mathematical truth does not tell us everything about the whole of reality.

A Reflection

From the above background, Cartesian conception of education basically has an epistemological undertone and epistemological explanation. In Cartesian conception, the aim or goal of education is to acquire the knowledge of that which is certain, universally true and free from every form of doubt. That is, in Descartes' conception, education involves certainty, universally valid truth and indomitability. In other words, to be educated is to cultivate the mind with power of reason in such a way that the mind is capable of holding intuition and universal truth that is founded on certainty.

However, there are some grounds where Descartes' conception of education agrees with the traditional views. It should be noted that both views agreed that education involves cultivation and mental development. Descartes' conception of education also acknowledged the traditional view that education involves learning and training because Descartes himself identified some beliefs or things he had earlier learnt and held to be true from his childhood days training though, they are false.

Bagley argued that Cartesian philosophy has the peculiar characteristic of disowning all previous philosophic enterprises as, useless and uncertain.22 In the same vein, Garcia had earlier warned that we should be careful of thinking that everything said by Descartes are all novel ideas that emanate from him. Assessing Descartes' philosophy, Garcia argued that

Analysing Descartes' correspondence and works, a contradiction can be observed in the issue of the novelty or antiquity of his philosophy. The fact is that Descartes sometimes clearly advances the newness of his project, whereas in other occasions he refuses the innovative character of his philosophy, asserting that it is "nothing new but is extremely old and very common", that is to say, conservative and compatible with Scholasticism. He even claims that his views are a continuation of Aristotelianism, thus he does "not use any principles which were not accepted by Aristotle and by all those who have ever concerned themselves with philosophy". Nevertheless, we will say that this contradiction is only apparent. It is obvious that Descartes did not believe that his philosophy and science supposed a continuity of Aristotelianism; hence he not only rejects the principles of Peripatetic philosophy explicitly, but he was aware that his own philosophy was in fact incompatible with Scholasticism because it destroyed their principles.23

In spite all criticisms against Cartesian philosophy, one thing we must not forget is that Descartes' conception of education is an advancement on the traditional Aristotelian and Platonic conceptions of education.

Conclusion

Our attempt to inquire into Cartesian conception of education suggests that, in daily life, we assume as certain many things which on a closer scrutiny, are found to be full of apparent contradiction. This is common through our traditional moral and cultural upbringing, informal learning process, as well as earlier stages of mental development. This assumption of certainty also occur at the level of senses experiences. However, education involves a mental cultivation with the power of reasoning in such a way that the mind capable of holding intuition and universal truth that is found on certainty in Descartes' view.

Footnote

1 Lohithakshan, P.M., (ed.), Dictionary of Education. (New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers), 2002, p. 130.

2 Pablo I., ed., Dictionary of World Philosophy, (London: Routledge), 2001, p. 408.

3 Fafunwa, A.B., History of Education in Nigeria. (London: George Allen.), 1974, p. 17.

4 Turan, S., "Plato's Concept of Education in 'Republic' and Aristotle's Concept of Education in 'Politics'". In Education and Science, Vol. 30. (2011):31-38.

5 Williams, S.G., The History of Ancient Education, (NY: C.W. Bardeen), 1903, p. 165.

6 Perry J., ed., Introduction to Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 1986, p. 618.

7 Lohithakshan, P.M., (ed.), Dictionary of Education. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers), 2002, p. 130.

8 Pablo I., ed., Dictionary of World Philosophy, (London: Routledge), 2001, p. 408.

9 Turan, S., "Plato's Concept of Education in 'Republic' and Aristotle's Concept of Education in 'Politics'". In Education and Science, Vol. 30. (2011)31-38.

10 Alston, W.P., (ed.), The Problem of Philosophy, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.), 1967, p. 386.

11 Butler, R.J., ed., Cartesian Studies. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell), 1972, p. 11.

12 Alston, W.P., (ed.), The Problem of Philosophy, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.), 1967, p. 507.

13 Bell, D. 1937.

14 Descartes, R., The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, tr. J. Cottingham, R. Stoothoff, D. Murdoch and A. Kenny, (Cambridge: CUP.), 1984, p. 204.

15 Bagley, P.J., "On The Moral Philosophy Of René Descartes: Or, How Morals Are Derived From Method" in Tijdschrift voor Filosofie, (1996):673-696.

16 Descartes, R., The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, tr. J. Cottingham, R. Stoothoff, D. Murdoch and A. Kenny. (Cambridge: CUP.), 1984.

17 Alexander, R.E., "The Problem of Metaphysical Doubt and its Removal" in R.J. Butler, ed. Cartesian Studies, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell.), 1972, p. 116.

18 Ashworth, E.J., "Descartes' Theory of Clear and Distinct Ideas" in R.J. Butler, ed. Cartesian Studies, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell.), 1972, p. 91.

19 Ashworth, E.J., (2), "Descartes' Theory of Clear and Distinct Ideas" in R.J. Butler, ed. Cartesian Studies, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell.), 197, p. 89.

20 Alexander, R.E., "The Problem of Metaphysical Doubt and its Removal" in R.J. Butler, ed. Cartesian Studies, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell.) 1972, p. 113.

21 Skirry, J., Descartes: A Guide for the Perplexed. (New Delhi: Bloomsbury), 2008, p. 71.

22 Bagley, P.J., "On The Moral Philosophy Of René Descartes: Or, How Morals Are Derived From Method" in Tijdschrift voor Filosofie, (1996):673-696.

23Garcia, S., "Descartes on Education: The Cartesian Reformation of the Seventeenth - Century Institutionalized Knowledge" in Society and Politics, vol. 11(2017):46-57.

References

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