The Discovery of Novel Antimicrobial Agents through the Application of Isocyanide-Based Multicomponent Reactions

Abstract

Multicomponent reactions (MCR) have been used to synthesize a wide range of analogs from several classes of heterocyclic compounds, with multifaceted medicinal uses. The synthesis of highly functionalized molecules in a single pot is a unique property of MCR, allowing researchers to quickly assemble libraries of compounds of biological interest and uncover novel leads as possible therapeutic agents. Isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions have proven to be extremely effective at swiftly specifying members of compound libraries, particularly in the discovery of drugs. The understanding of structure–activity correlations that drive the development of new goods and technology requires structural variety in these libraries. In today’s world, antibiotic resistance is a major ongoing problem that poses risks to public health. The implementation of isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions upholds a significant potential in this regard. By utilizing such reactions, new antimicrobial compounds can be discovered and subsequently used to fight against such concerns. This study discusses the recent developments in antimicrobial medication discovery using isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions (IMCRs). Furthermore, the article emphasizes the potential of IMCRs (Isocyanide-based multicomponent based reactions) in the near future.

1. Introduction

Multicomponent-based reactions are mainly chemical reactions where three or more compounds are used to make a final product. It has been almost 150 years since the world of chemistry was introduced to multicomponent reactions. Multicomponent reactions are a fascinating family of organic chemistry transformations [1]. Traditional bimolecular reactions are outperformed by such reactions, which combine three or more reactants into one reaction product [1]. Multicomponent reactions speed up chemical space exploration by minimizing the quantity of synthesis and refinement steps needed to create a particular target [2]. The associated atom economy of multicomponent reactions improves the chemical enterprise’s long-term viability even further.

Our knowledge of delicate reactivity principles is likewise challenged by the mechanics of multicomponent reactions. Aside from the benefits of mechanistic beauty and green chemistry, a crucial characteristic of multicomponent reactions that has yet to be completely appreciated is the ease with which functional materials can be built. Affinity ligands for immunoglobulin purification, imaging compounds in biological systems, proteome-wide mapping of protein–protein interactions, molecular machines, and molecular keys for utilization in advanced encryption standard cryptography with molecular steganography are just some of the functions that can be performed by multicomponent reactions [3,4,5,6].

Multicomponent reactions (MCRs) provide valuable methods for creating small-molecule compound libraries and are essential for studying structure–activity relationships (SARs). Since a number of multicomponent reactions produce exceptional scaffolds, the capacity to further qualify or functionalize them is critical for determining the scaffold’s biological value. Many of these scaffolds have a distinctive structure that allows them to investigate biological targets that regular scaffolds cannot. Novel scaffolds are becoming increasingly sought after for the treatment of infections that are liable to become unsusceptible to conventional treatments, and inventing anti-aging compounds that are required to combat diseases and conditions such as Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, Alzheimer’s, and cancer.

Previously, the majority of medications were found by coincidence or by identifying the active compounds in traditional cures. Modern drug development faces the difficulty of engineering chemical reactions capable of offering functional complexness and diversity with the fewest possible artificial steps for a specific target with fascinating attributes [7,8,9]. Combinatorial chemistry has recently been hailed as a strong method for rapidly developing lead molecules in the drug development process [10,11]. Thus, due to the necessity to find and produce novel chemical entities with desirable qualities in a more efficacious and cost-efficient manner, and most crucially, within a short timeframe, it has been a primary driving force behind the rising interest in this subject. The majority of medications on the market today are tiny chemical molecules with heterocyclic rings [7]. Furthermore, there are several restrictions to the availability and accessibility of properly functionalized heterocyclic building blocks for the synthesis of diverse libraries in combinatorial chemistry. Consequently, chemists continue to face significant difficulty in developing innovative, efficient, and clean synthetic processes [12]. There has been numerous multicomponent reactions in organic chemistry. Several types of multicomponent reactions are listed below in Table 1:

The incorporation of isocyanide, including the isonitrile reagent, has played a part in many of the most well-known and diversified types of multicomponent reactions. Multicomponent reactions based on isocyanide were among the first reactions which were found in organic chemistry. Nearly a century ago, Mario Passerini reported the first isocyanide-based 3CRs (three-component reactions) including an aryl isocyanide, carboxylic acids, and ketones [24]. Nearly 40 years later, Ugi announced the first isocyanide-based 4CRs (four-component reactions) [25]. Many reaction variants have been discovered as a result of Ugi’s visual percept into the processes of these MCRs. Multicomponent reactions also have the potential to facilitate combinatory collection synthesis and serve as platforms for diversity-oriented synthesis, according to Ugi. More than 150 years of study into IMCRs (isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions) has been supported by these pillars. Since synthetic organic chemists use IMCRs to solve difficulties in biology, polymers, and material science, these themes remain ubiquitous as we indicate on the state-of-the-art in the area [22,26,27]. In this review article, the invention of novel antibiotics through the application of isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions is elucidated. The article also highlights how isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions are being implemented to invent therapeutic drug compounds against several infectious diseases. To put it briefly, this review article is a comprehensive package of data regarding the usage of isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions in the biological sector and describes the potential it has in future drug development industries.

2. Isocyanides and the Types of Isocyanide-Based Multicomponent Reactions

Isocyanides (isonitriles) were the only stable organic molecules containing a formally divalent carbon atom for a long period of time. The group of isocyanides are distinguishable from other functional groups due to their reactivity. All commercially available isocyanides are volatile and emit a foul, harsh, and repulsive odor. It has been examined as a potential non-lethal weapon as a result of this type of odor. There are many isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions, the majority of which reportedly assist in chemical synthesis through using UGI’s four-component-based reaction. Though, in the following contexts, the distinct types of isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions are described.

In 1859, Lieke discovered isocyanides from the random reaction of silver cyanide and allyl iodide [28]. Later, Gautier and Hoffmann coined the word “isonitrile” after synthesizing these compounds by experimenting primary amines with alkali and chloroform [29]. Passerini presented the first IMCRs around half a century later, in 1921. Passerini’s three-component reaction (P-3CR) between an isocyanide, a carbonyl molecule, and a carboxylic acid resulted in the formation of α-acyloxy carboxamide 4. Although, attempts have been made to produce isocyanides in a more practical manner since the 1950s [30].

Finally, U-4CR began in the middle of 19th century, when Ivar Karl Ugi (1930–2005) synthesized α-acylamido carboxamide 9 by a single reaction of amine, carbonyl molecule, isocyanide, and acid [23,31,32]. The reaction has been referred to as the Ugi response since 1962. Around 20 years later, the modification of this reaction was carried out on a solid phase [33]. A research team has achieved the first stereoselective Ugi reaction on the solid phase in 2000 [34]. Finally, GBB-3CR, product 13 was discovered as the most recent MCR [35,36,37].

2.1. The Reactions of Passerini

Mario Passerini created the Passerini reaction in 1921. It was the first MCR to incorporate isocyanide and continues to play a significant role in combinatorial chemistry today. It entails the use of an aldehyde or ketone, an isocyanide, and a carboxylic acid, and provides direct access to -hydroxy carboxamides (Figure 1: Reaction 1). Ugi’s hypothesis indicates a non-ionic pathway, as the reaction is expedited in aprotic solvents (Figure 1: Reaction 2) [38]. The isocyanide’s nucleophilic attack follows the electrophilic activation of the carbonyl group. This produces a nitrilium intermediate, which is later targeted by carboxylate.

Following on from Passerini’s general reaction, many scientists have experimented with different compounds. Recently, research by Wang et al. has included asymmetric reactions using widely available chiral Lewis acids [39]. The Zhu lab has documented Passerini reactions with alcohols, isocyanides, and carboxylic acids, broadening the reaction’s potential utility beyond carbonyl-containing molecules. The process employs catalytic TEMPO, CuCl₂, and NaNO₂ to convert an alcohol to an aldehyde [40].

Passerini-type reactions between free alcohols (isopropanol), aldehydes (unsaturated and aryl), and isocyanides (such as t-butyl isocyanide) have been reported in the presence of In (III) [41]. El Kam and Grimaud’s pioneering study resulted in the revelation of what is now known as the Passerini–Smiles reaction.

In this situation, the carboxylic acid is replaced by an electron-deficient phenol, such as 2-nitrophenol (or other nitrogen heteroaromatic but electron-deficient phenols). This method is thought to include stimulation of the aldehyde by the frail acidic phenol (pKa ~4.2), rendering the carbonyl electrophilic and susceptible to attack by the isocyanide. The phenol attacks the incipient nitrilium ion, followed by a SNAr, forming an -aryloxy amide. The critical step, according to current thinking, is the irreversible Smiles rearrangement of the intermediate phenoxyimidate adduct (Figure 2) [42].

A relatively recent but significant addition made by Soeta et al. is the substitution of silanols for carboxylic acids in the Passerini reaction, allowing for the production of α--siloxyamides. The mechanism involves the coordination of the silyl group to the carbonyl’s oxygen. This makes it vulnerable to nucleophilic attack by an isocyanide, which is followed by the intramolecular trapping of the nitrilium ion by the silanol’s alcoholic functional group [43] (Figure 3).

2.2. Ugi-4C Reaction

A ketone or aldehyde, a carboxylic acid, an isocyanide, and an amine are used in a traditional Ugi four-component reaction (U4CR).Typically, the reaction is carried out in high concentrations of methanol or 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol. The first step involves creating an imine by reacting the amine with the carbonyl compound, followed by the isocyanide’s nucleophilic attack, which produces the highly reactive nitrilium intermediate. The carboxylic acid then attacks the nitrilium, resulting in the formation of a central bis-amide via intramolecular Mumm rearrangement (Figure 4).

Post-Ugi reactions have been reported depending on the R groups. Among the most notable are the Ugi-Heck, Ugi-Diels-Alder, Ugi-click, and Ugi-Buchwald-Hartwig reactions, in which a Ugi bis-amide containing reactive functional groups undergoes secondary reactions to form a ring. On the other hand, linear bis-amides are useful for the synthesis of peptides (both linear and cyclic) and peptidomimetics (Figure 4) [44,45,46,47,48].

2.3. Groebke–Blackburn–Bienaymé Reaction

In a non-concerted [4 + 1] reaction between an imine generated through the reaction between an aldehyde and an amine and an isocyanide, the reaction gives 3-aminoimidizoles [37,49,50]. This is called the Groebke–Blackburn–Bienaymé reaction, as shown in Figure 5. The nitrilium ion is trapped by the heterocyclic nitrogen, resulting in the production of an imidazole ring after rearrangement [36,51]. Kinase inhibitors, topoisomerase II inhibitors, antibacterials efficient against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, fluorescence probes, and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors are among the bioactive molecules created using this method [52,53,54,55,56,57].

3. Groebke–Blackburn–Bienaymé Reaction in the Discovery of the Modified Antibiotic Trimethoprim

Antibiotic resistance is a new concern in public health. It does not only have high morbidity but also also has high mortality rates. Trimethoprim is a known antibiotic in the medicine field which is generally used with Sulfamethoxazole to treat urinary tract infections, which are caused by Staphylococcus aureus in cystic fibrosis patients, acute or severe bacterial diarrhea, or dysentery, and to protect infected areas from the opportunistic bacteria Pneumocystis carinii, which causes pneumonia in AIDS patients [58]. Combined medications of Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazole used to work by blocking two enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of folic acid: dihydropteroate synthetase and dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), respectively [59]. Folate is produced by bacteria and is required for the biosynthesis of thymidine, which is required for DNA synthesis. As a result, when these antibiotics are taken together, they have a synergistic impact, limiting the growth of bacteria and eventually forwarding towards cell death. Later, when bacteria developed resistance to this treatment, determining progressive drugs to combat multidrug-resistant infections and organisms became increasingly difficult, as is the case with multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Combined medication of the two antibiotics has been found to be ineffective in treating infections caused by bacteria that have TMP-resistant DHFR enzymes. Many research teams have presented chemical variability at the residue of trimethoxybenzyl of the trimethoprim for the optimization of the medicine’s characteristics, overall activity, and to address trimethoprim resistance issues, resulting in the discovery of potential compounds against E. coli and S. aureus [60,61,62,63]. In 2019, Pedrola and her research team published a study wherein they modified the 2,4-diaminopyrimidine moiety of the drug Trimethoprim by the application of Groebke–Blackburn–Bienaymé reaction. In their study, they used the GBBR to create a series of TMP derivatives by fostering interactions between the trimethoprim and distinct types of ketones, aldehydes, and isocyanides, and then analyzed the resultant MCR compound as new antibacterial agents, determining their efficiency and potency while also taking into account their possible effect on resistant bacteria [64].

TMP has undergone chemical alterations based on the newly discovered effect of GBBRs on diaminopyrimidines, which entail selective and numerous MCRs [65]. The trimethoprim analogs therefore comprise a regioselective mono Groebke–Blackburn–Bienaymé reaction with an isocyanide/aldehyde pair, yielding by-products. It is worth noting that the advantageous production of the discovered isomer is justified by a kinetic control. Double GBBR procedures on TMP also result in two secondary by-products, and both of them are equivalents to each reactant class. To adequately produce and initiate the imine intermediate and obtain a decent yield, a range of Lewis acid catalysts was used. In addition, to obtain the pure product, conventional flash chromatography purification was usually required. The TMP reactant’s imidazo-azine scaffolds (N-fused bicyclic) were employed in the analogs, showing the variance points at R1, which came from the isocyanide input. R2 came from the aldehyde reactant (Figure 6).

The procedures performed as expected in their TMP (Trimethoprim) system generate the desired compounds and exhibit similar reactivity and selectivity trends as the unsubstituted diaminopyrimidine experiments [65]. For primary screening, they have created an order of trimethoprim analogs that have a distinct effect on the imidazole amino group (R1 is 4-methoxyphenyl,ethoxycarbonylmethyl and cyclohexyl,tert-butyl), and a distinct variety of aromatic or alkyl substituents at the carbon position (R2 being methyl, α-, β-, or γ-pyridinyl, 4-chlorophenyl, isopropyl and α-thienyl). These reactions were prosperous, providing acceptable yields of mono-Groebke–Blackburn–Bienaymé by-products, and doubly substituted-Groebke–Blackburn–Bienaymé adducts. As a result, twelve novel compounds were derived, and the appropriate aldehyde/isocyanide combined mixture were synthesized as pure materials in this manner. Later, they decided to add an unsubstituted amino group to the imidazole ring of the new derivatives to help them be recognized by the DHFR function region, as the native substrate does. They then went about making such compounds by acidically removing a tert-butyl group from a suitable precursor adduct derived from MCRs involving tert-butyl isocyanide.

Though all of the abducts had MIC values greater than TMP (Trimethoprim) against S. aureus ATCC 29213 and E. coli ATCC 25922, some of them were almost as efficacious as TMP (Figure 7: 6–10). TMP, as well as all novel compounds, proved to be completely ineffective against P. aeruginosa PAO1 [66]. Almost all of the novel compounds, such as the control drug TMP, responded synergistically with SMX against E. coli ATCC 25922 and S. aureus ATCC 29213, with the other species being substantially more sensitive to the SMX combination than to the TMP–GBBR (Trimethoprim and Groebke–Blackburn–Bienaymé adducts) analogs alone. It was also discovered that nearly all of the novel compounds had high efficacy against a collection of MRSA (methicillin resistant S. aureus) clinical isolates recovered from hospitalized or cystic fibrosis patients. The greatest challenge of antibiotic therapy in CF (cystic fibrosis) patients is Staphylococcus aureus (and specifically MRSA) infection because this bacterium’s persistent infection is significantly linked to increasing rates of respiratory function loss and high mortality. As a result, new ways of combating this type of bacterium are required, and they should be based on new antimicrobials, most likely in combination with existing ones [67,68].

Regarding the SMX combination, there was a significant potency (Figure 8: 11–12) (Figure 9: 13–16). Unfortunately, it was found that the adducts, regardless of whether they were alone or in conjunction with SMX, had no effect on Pseudomonas aeruginosa in any circumstance, despite the presence of TMP activity.

4. The Discovery of Antimicrobial Compounds against Infectious Diseases through the Application of Ugi’s Reaction

Multicomponent reactions have been used by a number of institutions and pharmaceutical businesses to produce medications that aim to combat infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Morphochem created a series of antituberculosis compounds based on the structure of isoniazid and pyrazinamide (Figure 10) [69]. Two libraries of 192 new compounds were created using the pyridine-4- carboxy and pyrazine carboxy pharmacophores present in isoniazid and pyrazinamide as part of the carboxylic acid component in the Ugi reaction. The libraries were made up of individual compounds in 96-well plates, and the raw materials were evaluated against M. tuberculosis after the reaction solvent had evaporated. Compounds that inhibited M. tuberculosis H37Rv by more than 90% were resynthesized and purified, and their minimum inhibitory activity (MIC) and cytotoxicity (IC50) were assessed against the H37Rv strain of M. tuberculosis. The preliminary findings were promising, as numerous compounds from each library had cellular activity similar to isoniazid.

The Ugi/Joullie’ reaction [70] was used to make a library of pyrrolidones (Figure 11), which were evaluated against a range of targets and found to be active against the bovine diarrhea virus (BVDV), which is used as a surrogate for the human hepatitis C virus [71]. The compounds were found to be inactive in a variety of glycosidase assays and against the hepatitis B virus, indicating a novel and specific mechanism of action.

Early findings on the preparation and testing of a small library of 25 2’-deoxyuridine analogs as antiviral and antileishmanial drugs were reported by Torrence et al. (Figure 12) [72]. The compounds were isolated and evaluated as single diastereomers against cowpox virus (a surrogate for smallpox virus) and the parasite Leishmania donovani, which were produced as diastereomeric mixtures by the Ugi reaction using 5-formyl-2’- deoxyuridine as the aldehyde component. Several compounds, particularly as antileishmanial agents, showed potential.

The quinoline substructure seen in many antimalarial medications was integrated into an amine component for the Ugi reaction using a technique similar to that used in antituberculosis libraries [73]. Despite the fact that several compounds from these libraries had antimalarial activity, the initial libraries’ flexibility and peptidic nature, as well as their low activity, prompted the researchers to pursue a variant of the Ugi reaction that employs two functional groups in one molecule, resulting in heterocyclic structures [74]. A library of 16 4-aminoquinoline γ and δ lactams was synthesized and evaluated against parasite cells of the chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum W2 strain as well as enzymatic activity against recombinant falcipain-2. The compound was found to be more effective against the resistant P. falciparum strain than the antimalarial medication chloroquine [75].

In 1999, a convertible isonitrile was synthesized by a group of researchers led by Linderman et al. Later, this convertible isonitrile was utilized in the process of Ugi reaction to make Uracil Polyoxin, which is also known as analogs of methyl ester (UPOC) [76]. In the field of agriculture, polyoxins are used as fungicides. Polyoxins are a class of nucleoside antibiotics that have a critical natural function in that they oppose chitin synthase (CS). Generally, Polyoxins were isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans due to their antibacterial properties [77]. Chitin synthases are considered attractive targets for inhibition in fungi and insects. Structurally related nikkomycins and polyoxins were synthesized using the Ugi process. In the Ugi process, convertible isonitrile, 2’,3’-isopropylidine-protected uridine-5’-aldehyde, isoxazolecarboxylic acid derivative, and 2,4-dimethoxybenzylamine were included [78].

Later the acidic hydrolysis resulted in the full deprotection of the isopropylidene and DMB groups, and also the isonitrile-extracted amide was transformed into equal UPOC methyl ester or Polyoxins.

A chemical compound named viridic acid was initially isolated from P. viridicatum. This compound is a tetrapeptide that can be produced by numerous Penicillium species. In 2012, Neves et al. employed the Ugi reaction to make a racimate combination of viridic acid. They applied Ugi reaction in the process to shorten the pathway of other standard procedures [79]. The Ugi four-component reaction between compound 1a, 1b, 1c, and the 1d, 1e has given a new compound, 1f, and saponification of 1f caused the racemic viridic acid to reach 83%. Additionally, after traditional separation procedures failed to separate the epimers, combined acid was tested as an antimicrobial drug in the opposition of a bacteria called Aliivibrio fischeri (Gram negative). With the half-maximal inhibitory concentration values of 45.0 ± 4.4 and 38.4 ± 5.8 M, respectively, the compounds were the most powerful [79,80,81,82].

Drug efflux pump inhibitors have a lot of promise as pharmacological treatments for restoring drug sensitivity in multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. The Ugi reaction was utilized to make a targeted collection of C-capped dipeptide efflux pump inhibitors, with C-capped dipeptides BU-005 being made using the Ugi four-compound reaction and full deprotection of Boc and DMB of the product using TFA. The C-capped dipeptide BU-005 was able to inhibit two chloramphenicol-specific efflux pumps in Streptomyces coelicolor, a Gram-positive bacterium that is related to the human pathogen Mycobacterium TB [83,84].

A member of uridylpeptide antibiotics named Pacidamycin D 90 was initially discovered in 1989 from Streptomyces coeruleorubidus AB 1183F-64. 3′-hydroxypacidamycin D are analogs of Pacidamycin D 90 which are also considered to be uridylpeptide antibiotics that are selective of antimicrobial drugs against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. They also have the capability to act on the inhibition of phospho-MurNAc-pentapeptide transferase (MraY). The half-maximal inhibitory concentration value is 42 nM, and their MIC for different strains of P. aeruginosa is 8–32 μg mL. MraY is an essential enzyme in bacteria, wherein it is responsible for the creation of lipid I in the peptidoglycan biosynthesis pathway [85,86].

Benzimidazoles have many anti-medicinal properties, such as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-HIV, and anticancer properties. With the intent of synthesizing a variety of benzimidazole, in 2016, Yan et al. led his research team and synthesized several benzimidazole derivatives. They extended their study to Ugi and aza-Wittig to extract more useful heterocycles than before. Therefore, the scientist team developed a one-pot reaction that combines the reaction of Ugi with a catalytic reaction of aza-Wittig to synthesize multi-substituted benzimidazoles under the presence of a catalytic amount of 2-aminobenzoylazide derivatives, 3-methyl-1-phenyl-2-phospholene, 1-oxide, carboxylic, aldehydes, and isonitriles. The one-pot reaction was designed to produce more poly-substituted benzimidazoles [87,88,89,90,91].

The utility of antimicrobial hydrogels as wound dressings and fillers make them very enticing materials. These types of gels have a lot of water in them, so they keep the wound area moist and well-hydrated, which helps the immune cells work, becoming an essential part of the healing process. Hydrogels that can self-heal are distinct from regular hydrogels since they can automatically fix internal or exterior damage without help. Self-healing hydrogels, a new class of intelligent soft matter, have been the subject of extensive studies and demonstrated remarkable potential as biomaterials for medication delivery and treatment. In 2019, Zeng and his research team developed a self-healing antibacterial hydrogen with the application of Ugi’s reaction [92]. They achieved a multifunctional polyethylene glycol through UGi’s reaction by efficiently linking between phenols groups and phenylboronic acid at the end of a polyethylene glycol derivative. In pre-clinical trials, the multifunctional polyethylene glycol had shown antibacterial properties primarily due to the phenol moieties present in the polymer structure. When the multifunctional polyethylene glycol was mixed with polyvinyl alcohol, it crosslinked the polyethylene glycol through dynamic borate esters between phenylboronic acid moieties in itself and diol groups in polyvinyl alcohol [92]. Thus, this is how they have produced self-healing antibacterial hydrogels, which can have fifty- and ten-times higher MIC values than the combination of penicillin and streptomycin for E. coli and or S. aureus, respectively.

5. Advancements in HIV and Cancer Treatment Due to the Application of IMCRs

Similar to antimicrobial agents, isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions have various applications in the field of medicine.

Isocyanide-based multi-component reactions proven to be useful in the treatment of HIV. Three different groups of research teams have described a method that was utilized to access fused bicyclic imidazoles at the same time. This method was combined with a further cyclization to produce tetracyclic pyridinones that were active against the wild-type HIV-IIIB strain. Domling and coworkers and Sperka et al. previously observed the MCR-mediated inhibition of the HIV-1 protease. Domling has reported the synthesis of a new library of aspartyl protease inhibitors based on the van Leusen reaction, which is currently being tested for biological activity [35,36,37,93]. The creation of strong C-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 5 antagonists for the treatment of HIV infection exemplifies the potency of MCRs in drug discovery. Researchers [94] have employed a method called UDC (Ugi/deBoc/cyclization), which was established by Hulme et al. [95], to synthesize libraries of spirodiketopiperazines centered on the concept that spiropiperidines are known favored structures for G protein-coupled receptors. The first libraries were screened against a variety of chemokine targets, and several compounds were discovered to be active in CCR5. The frequent observation of libraries allowed the original hits to be optimized into compounds that were very powerful against CCR5 functional (IC50 = 0.02 mM) and binding tests (IC50 = 0.002 mM), as well as exclusive to other G-protein-coupled receptors.

In 2007, GlaxoSmithKline produced the clinical candidate Aplaviroc for the treatment of HIV infection [96] after further refining pharmacokinetic properties. The development of a multicomponent reaction-derived molecule in late clinical phase trials demonstrates the significance of the process for future drug development, despite the fact that further development of this clinical candidate was halted due to liver issues in the patients [97,98].

Cancer is known to be a group of diseases that is developed by abnormal cell growth and spread. According to the American Cancer Society, cancer is the second most deadly disease after heart disease. In 2022, approximately two million new cancer cases and over six hundred thousand deaths from cancer were recorded [99]. Cancer is a treatable disease if it is diagnosed early. However, most cancers are diagnosed in the metastasized state, minimizing the chances of survival. Evolving drug resistance is a significant new obstacle to cancer treatment, along with the problems of low tumor selectivity, diversity of cancer types, and drug toxicity. There is an urgent need to discover less toxic and more potent new anticancer drugs that selectively target the interactive mechanisms involved in the growth and metastasis of cancer without harming the healthy body cells. Recently, in drug discovery and development, isocyanide-multicomponent-reaction-based synthetic strategies have been used extensively. Several drugs made with IMCR are now on the market, and thousands more are being made.

A research team observed that a compound known as benzo[b]-thiophene has similar characteristics to colchicine, which is a potential microtubule function inhibitor [100] that functions by binding its subunits in tubulin polymerization or inhibiting the growth of microtubules. Benzo[b]-thiophene can bind weakly in the place of colchicine in tubulin and can inhibit tubulin polymerization. Another research, led by Flynn et al., demonstrated that if o-indophenol or o-iodoacetanilides are multicomponent-coupled with aryl iodides and terminal alkynes, they can increase the potential of indole and benzo[b] furan-based tubulin polymerization inhibitors, which may lead to their use in potent chemotherapy in the future.

Podophyllotoxin are known as anti-neoplastic agents in cancer therapeutics. Mimetic libraries are competing with Podophyllotoxin [101]. Research has found that applying three multicomponent reactions to synthesize dihydropyridopyrazole retain the tubulin polymerization’s inhibiting activity. In the reaction, Dihydropyridonaphthalene derivative has shown potential anticancer activities at a nanomolar concentration in HeLa and MCF 7 cell lines.

6. G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) Antagonist by IMCRs for the Treatment of Distinct Diseases

Diketopiperazines, also known as a dioxopiperazine or piperazinedione, have been developed as oxytocin-receptor antagonists, leading to a continuing success story for multicomponent reactions and early combinatorial chemistry efforts. In opposition to the oxytocin receptor, GlaxoSmithKline tried solid-phase libraries generated by Affymax scientists and many hits were found. Thorough observation of the hits led to the development of strong, exclusive, and orally bioavailable oxytocin antagonists.

Further observation of the experiment led to the identification of GSK221149A. Due to the chirality of the starting components, this chemical is produced in four steps, mostly as the desired single diastereoisomer. The chemical compound is currently in Phase II clinical trials for the treatment of pre-term labor, according to studies [102,103,104,105,106,107].

There have been two recent publications on the usage of IMCRs to reach Class C metabotropic glutamate receptors. The Ugi process was utilized to make diastereomeric mixes of 2-(3-phosphonobicylo [1.1.1]pentyl)- glycines in the first case. Both diastereomers were sixteen times more active against mGluR4 after separation and testing [108,109]

Furthermore, the chemical was selective for mGluR4 over most other mGlu receptors, suggesting that it could be a useful tool for researching the role of mGluR4 in a range of diseases. A library of imidazo [2,1-B]thiazoles prepared by the Blackburn–Groebke–Bienayme’ reaction was used to identify powerful mGluR5 binders in the second scenario [35,36,37]. From adequate starting materials, the bulk of the compounds might be synthesized in one or two steps. In a rat pain formalin paradigm, the compound was orally effective, resulting in a 66% reduction in nociceptive pain when compared to a control at 10 mg/kg.

7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

IMCRs (isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions) provide speedy access to novel chemotypes and also enable large-scale chemical investigations. Various uses of MCRs (multicomponent reactions) in drug development have emerged in the last decade, though the potential benefits of multicomponent-based reaction chemistry have yet to be fully realized. In particular, variations and post-multicomponent-based reaction techniques for accessing more constrained scaffolds remain relatively unexplored areas for investigating biological space.

The implementation of a multicomponent reaction approach offers a wide range of applications in the synthesis of heterocyclic compounds with biological potential. Multicomponent reactions have gained a lot of traction regarding organic synthesis for synthesizing highly functionalized compounds and testing them against various biological targets to find novel therapeutic leads. The three or four multicomponent reactions have been extensively investigated for synthesizing various heterocyclic compounds in order to investigate their biological potential and develop therapeutic medicines. Most multicomponent reactions may be carried out in a single pot without the use of common volatiles, allowing for eco-friendly chemistry to be developed. The multicomponent reactions have a lot of flexibility when it comes to generating libraries of compounds with various functional groups for screening purposes. The use of diversity-oriented synthesis to create compounds or intermediates in the hunt for new/novel medicinal molecules is gaining popularity. There were strategies disclosed that exploited a wide range of mechanistic types of multicomponent reactions, including those based on classic carbonyl condensations, isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions, cycloaddition-based multicomponent reactions, and transition metal-catalyzed multicomponent reactions.

Identifying more selective catalysts and optimal reaction conditions that would enhance functional group tolerance and variety in the products of the earliest multicomponent reactions is one of the limitations that must be tackled. Divergent sequential methods can be used to tackle the limitations where divergent reaction paths could arise due to variation in reaction conditions. In order to construct libraries with significant structural diversity, catalysts can be utilized, or slight structural variations in the building blocks need to be developed. Finally, the work must be put into the creation of sequential protocols that can be executed as one-pot operations in order to enable the generation of different libraries that are both environmentally and economically viable. According to the current state of the affairs, all of these issues can be overcome, and one-pot sequential methods, including multicomponent reactions and successive elaborations, are likely to become a major tool for drug development. Furthermore, multicomponent-based reaction techniques aid research teams with limited personnel and financial resources by allowing them to advance their programs more effectively. We should anticipate even more examples of multicomponent-based reaction chemistry in drug discovery in the coming years as compounds from a variety of robust techniques make their way into compound collections and deliver valuable hits for drug development programs.

In summary, isocyanide-based multicomponent reactions have progressed over the past century, to the extent whereby they are now widely utilized in fields that use chemical materials.

The fact that these reactions are stable and can be used in many different ways should encourage researchers to explore and use them outside of chemical synthesis. This themed collection will hopefully encourage readers to take advantage of these opportunities in the next 100 years.

Author Contributions

S.Q. conceptualized the review and planned the work. He was also responsible for funding acquisition, drafting the primary manuscript, and revising the work. S.G., M.T.R. and J.A.M. were involved in writing the primary manuscript, elaborating on the ideas, and rewriting the draft. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not Applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not Applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not Applicable.

Acknowledgments

We are eternally grateful to Kamaljot Singh from Department of Chemistry, Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University, Punjab, India, for his help with structures and IUPAC nomenclature in the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

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Figures and Table

Figure 1. Reaction 1: A general Passerini reaction yielding an α-acyloxy amide, Reaction 2: The mechanism of Passerini’s general reaction.

Figure 2. The Passerini–Smiles reaction.

Figure 3. Passerini reaction yielding α-(sulfonyloxy) amides.

Figure 4. The Traditional Ugi-4C Component Reaction and The mode of action of the Ugi-4C Reaction.

Figure 5. Groebke–Blackburn–Bienaymé reaction.

Figure 6. The chemical action of mono and double Trimethoprim GBBR compounds.

Figure 7. Some novel compounds of TMP, which have potential activity against bacterium. Wherein, 6 is N3-(tert-butyl)-2-isopropyl-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine-3,7-diamine; 7 is N3-(tert-butyl)-2-methyl-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine-3,7-diamine; 8 is N3-(tert-butyl)-2-(thiophen-3-yl)-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo [1,2-a]pyrimidine-3,7-diamine; 9 is N3-cyclohexyl-2-(pyridin-3-yl)-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine-3,7-diamine; and 10 is N3-cyclohexyl-2-(pyridin-3-yl)-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine-3,7-diamine.

Figure 8. Some of the derivatives of TMP, which have shown potential activity against bacterium. Wherein, 11 is 2-(3-chlorophenyl)-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine-3,7-diamine and 12 is 2-(pyridin-3-yl)-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine-3,7-diamine.

Figure 9. Some of the TMP derivatives that have shown potential activity against bacteria when used in conjunction with SMX. Wherein, 13 is N3-(tert-butyl)-2-(3-chlorophenyl)-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine-3,7-diamine; 14 is N3-cyclohexyl-2-(pyridin-3-yl)-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine-3,7-diamine; 15 is ethyl (7-amino-2-(2H-1λ3-thiophen-3-yl)-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidin-3-yl)glycinate; and 16 is N3-(tert-butyl)-2-(pyridin-3-yl)-6-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine-3,7-diamine.

Figure 10. Antituberculosis agents made by the synthesis of Ugi’s Reaction.

Figure 11. Hepatitis agents synthesized by the Ugi or Joullie reaction.

Figure 12. Antiviral agents synthesized by the Ugi reaction.

Table 1

Different types of multicomponent reactions.

Names of Researcher	Invention Year	Reaction	Reaction Litterateur
Strecker	1850	[Image omitted. Please see PDF.]	An aldehyde is condensed with ammonium chloride in the presence of potassium cyanide to generate an a-amino nitrile, which can be hydrolyzed to give the a-amino acid [13].
Hantzsch	1882	[Image omitted. Please see PDF.]	An ammonia, two equivalents of ethyl acetoacetate and an aldehyde has developed a dihydropyridine from this synthesis [14].
Biginelli	1891	[Image omitted. Please see PDF.]	Synthesis of an ethyl acetoacetate, urea, and an aryl aldehyde (benzaldehyde) has developed 3,4-dihydropyrimidin-2(1H) [15,16,17,18].
Mannich	1912	[Image omitted. Please see PDF.]	An amino alkylation of an enol with an amine and an aldehyde is used in this reaction [19].
Ugi	1960	[Image omitted. Please see PDF.]	A ketone or aldehyde, an amine, an isocyanide, and a carboxylic acid are used in this multicomponent process to generate a bis-amide [20,21,22,23]

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