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In this article, research conducted in the United States since 1987 on the effects of homework is summarized. Studies are grouped into four research designs. The authors found that all studies, regardless of type, had design flaws. However, both within and across design types, there was generally consistent evidence for a positive influence of homework on achievement. Studies that reported simple homework-achievement correlations revealed evidence that a stronger correlation existed (a) in Grades 7-12 than in K-6 and (b) when students rather than parents reported time on homework. No strong evidence was found for an association between the homework-achievement link and the outcome measure (grades as opposed to standardized tests) or the subject matter (reading as opposed to math). On the basis of these results and others, the authors suggest future research.
KEYWORDS: homework, meta-analysis.
Homework can be defined as any task assigned by schoolteachers intended for students to carry out during nonschool hours (Cooper, 1989). This definition explicitly excludes (a) in-school guided study; (b) home study courses delivered through the mail, television, audio or vidéocassette, or the Internet; and (c) extracurricular activities such as sports and participation in clubs. The phrase "intended for students to carry out during nonschool hours" is used because students may complete homework assignments during study hall, library time, or even during subsequent classes.
Variations in homework can be classified according to its (a) amount, (b) skill area, (c) purpose, (d) degree of choice for the student, (e) completion deadline, (f) degree of individualization, and (g) social context. Variations in the amount of homework can appear as differences in both the frequency and length of individual assignments. Assignments can range over all the skill areas taught in school.
The purposes of homework assignments can be divided into (a) instructional and (b) noninstructional objectives (cf. Epstein, 1988,2001; Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2001; Lee & Pruitt, 1979). The most common instructional purpose of homework is to provide the student with an opportunity to practice or review material that has already been presented in class (Becker & Epstein, 1982). Preparation assignments introduce material to help students obtain the maximum benefit when the new material is covered in class (Muhlenbruck, Cooper, Nye, & Lindsay, 1999). Extension homework involves the transfer of previously learned...