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Rosa Katherine Pawsey: School of Applied Science, South Bank University, London, UK,
Pamela Howard: Reigate and Banstead Borough Council, Reigate, Surrey, UK
Introduction
In the twentieth century refrigeration technology has made possible the manufacture and conservation of commercial ice for putting around foods to cool and maintain them at a low temperature, for putting into drinks, and, in some food manufacturing processes, as a food ingredient. Drinking ice is made in ice-making machines which vary in scale. Small machines may be present in pubs, bars and hotels, whereas ice wholesalers sell packaged ice to the retail and catering market manufacturing many tonnes per day.
According to Felix (1989) only about a quarter of the ice consumed in the USA is made by big manufacturers, packaged, and transported to retail outlets and sold in labelled bags. The other three quarters of the ice is made at the point of use in shops, bars, hotels and restaurants in small machines.
Water
Water is embraced within the definition of "food" in the Food Safety Act 1990, the "FSA", (Anon, 1990). The Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) Regulations 1995 (Anon, 1995a) made under the FSA cover the hygiene and quality of water in any form used in food manufacture or as food. Chapter VII, Regulation 2(i) says:"where appropriate ice must be made from potable water. This ice must be used whenever necessary to ensure food stuffs are not contaminated. It must bemade, handled and stored under conditions which protect it from all contamination."
Thus the FSA also covers the production and use of ice whether it is for consumption in drinks or for cooling foods with which it might come into contact, or for use in certain food manufacturing processes. The Act requires that potable water, being of a microbiological quality that would not affect the wholesomeness of food nor pose a risk to the health of a consumer, is used.
Pathogens of significance in potable waters
Many pathogens including those associated with human and animal faecal pollution, or contaminated groundwater, can be transmitted to their hosts through water supplies. The World Health Organisation (WHO) (WHO, 1996) lists groups of bacteria, viruses, protozoans and helminths as waterborne pathogens, for many of which the main route of exposure is oral...