The Effect Model of Billboard Advertising Media

Abstract

This study explores the individual latent constructs influencing billboard advertising effects. Focusing on the billboard media in Times Square, New York City, this study investigates the proposed effect model of billboard advertising media. The results show that the congruence and symbolic values influenced media distinctiveness. Congruence was positively linked to consumer emotion, and symbolic values influenced media values. Distinctiveness influenced emotion, but did not affect media values. Emotion was found to be linked to media values and attitudes toward billboard advertising. Media values also directly influenced attitudes toward billboard advertising. These results provide potential academic and managerial implications about billboard advertising.

Headnote

Abstract

This study explores the individual latent constructs influencing billboard advertising effects. Focusing on the billboard media in Times Square, New York City, this study investigates the proposed effect model of billboard advertising media. The results show that the congruence and symbolic values influenced media distinctiveness. Congruence was positively linked to consumer emotion, and symbolic values influenced media values. Distinctiveness influenced emotion, but did not affect media values. Emotion was found to be linked to media values and attitudes toward billboard advertising. Media values also directly influenced attitudes toward billboard advertising. These results provide potential academic and managerial implications about billboard advertising.

Keywords: billboard advertising, congruence, symbolic values, distinctiveness, media emotion and values

Introduction

Out-of-home (OOH) media are one of the most well-known historical advertising formats (Schaeffler, 2012). It is commonly known that before the modern advertising industry appeared, earlier forms of advertising were based on types of signboards that served as primitive types of advertising (Park, Kim, & del Pobil, 2011). Despite its long history, OOH advertising (advertising using OOH media) has deviated from the main academic interests of advertising research (Katz, 2003). Nevertheless, some believe OOH advertising has various merits. For example, OOH media (e.g., billboards) can receive massive exposure to pedestrians and drivers and are very effective in terms of consumer exposure (Roux &. Van der Waldt, 2016; Taylor, Franke, &. Bang, 2006). Although it has not gained much academic attention, OOH advertising has its own concrete industrial position (e.g., Jurca &. Madlberger, 2015). Furthermore, as OOH media evolve, they have become smarter than ever before by incorporating digital technologies into their appearance and characteristics (Dennis et al., 2014; Taylor, 2015). Digital signage represents digital outdoor that has potential in advertising industries, based on interactivity or other new media technologies (Bae, Jun, & Hough, 2016).

This study starts from the point that there has been limited research on OOH media and OOH advertising. The main research target is billboard media, which comprise the typical types of OOH advertising. In particular, this study is interested in billboards located in Time Squares for several reasons. First, many people such as advertisers and tourists know billboards in Time Squares very well. Also, these media exert various additional effects, along with direct media exposure effects. For example, advertisers using Times Square billboards can use this advertising execution as PR (Public Relations) issues. Moreover, even for brands from other countries, Times Square advertising can be a symbol of global branding in their domestic markets (Cheon &. Jun, 2012).

Accordingly, this study focuses on which variables in consumers' minds influence their attitude toward billboard advertising media, especially in Times Square. More specifically, this study aims to explore how billboard media work via consumers' perceptions by proposing the effect model of billboard advertising media that explores the effects of individual consumers' latent constructs on their attitude toward billboard advertising media, including hypothesized relationships. Suggesting the research model, we empirically test hierarchical relationships in this study.

Conceptual Rational and Hypotheses Development

Since consumers easily see billboards and perceive billboard media as a part of their lives, a billboard medium is a representative form of OOH advertising (Taylor, Franke, &Bang, 2006). Recently various types of billboards have appeared, and we can now notice digitalized forms of billboards such as digital signage that has newly entered into media and advertising markets and has gained attention from the media industries for a decade (Bae, Jun, & Hough, 2016). In particular, sometimes people regard billboards located in Times Square as media art, due to their novel presentation styles. Since these billboard media are not only for pedestrians in Times Square but also for effective advertising forms, we explore how the following relevant individual consumer's latent constructs influence billboard advertising effects via billboard media in Times Square, New York City.

Congruence

Congruence between objects and messages is important in enhancing communication effects (Choi & Rifon, 2012). Varadarajan and Menon (1988) defined congruence as the perceived relevance between two objects and involves various concepts including products, brand image, positioning, and target markets. Academic fields also have used similar concepts, such as fit or similarity. Even though the literal expressions are different, the basic roles are similar. Since Gardner and Levy (1955) first examined the congruence effect between brand and self-image, self-congruence theory ("the self-concept which encompasses an individual's schema set, or the articulation of the self in memory, and entails a stable and a malleable element"; Plewa &. Palmer, 2014, p. 240), increasingly has received study in the marketing and social-psychology literature (e.g., Bosnjak et ak, 2011; Plewa &. Palmer, 2014; Sirgy, 1986; Sirgy et al., 2008).

Researchers have applied the congruence effect to various issues in the advertising and branding literature, which include spokesperson and brand congruence (Atkin &. Block, 1983; Kamins & Gupta, 1994; Misra &. Beatty, 1990), consumer personality and brand congruence (Maehle & Shneor, 2010; Nienstedt, Huber, & Seelmann, 2012), price expectation and brand congruence (van Rompay & Pruyn, 2011), reputation and brand personality congruence (Kuenzel & Halliday, 2010), and the effects of self-image and brand congruence (Andreassen &. Lanseng, 2010; Mazodier &Merunka, 2012; Plewa &. Palmer, 2014).

Likewise, this relationship can adapt to the relationship between media and the environment because media and environments have a close connection and influence each other (Dennis, Michon, &. Newman, 2010). Although researchers have applied studies related to congruence in various topics, there are only a few studies regarding congruence between the environment and brand image. Hogg, Cox, and Keeling (2000) demonstrated a clear association between the consumers' self-image and a drink's brand image. They also found that an individual's brand choice can differ, depending on the environment. In other words, the environment has a significant effect on perceptions, not only of one's self-image but also of the brand image; this suggests that further examination of congruence between media image and the surrounding environment of OOH advertising would be meaningful. As such, our study focuses on the conceptual fit between billboard media and the locational environments where the media are installed. This proposition is based on the cognitive balance of consumers. The more consumers perceive a perceptual fit, the more they hold favorable evaluations of the media.

Symbolic Value

A value is an important dimension of OOH advertising. Pohlman and Mudd (1973) identified two values: functional value and symbolic value. They argued that "functional value is that which is conventionally meant by utility as a good, while symbolic value (i.e., image) is the extent to which a purchase enhances the worth of the person in his own eyes (self-esteem) and in the eyes of others (status)" (p. 167).

A common approach applied in advertising to influence an individual's purchase behaviors is the value-expressive or symbolic value approach (e.g., Johar & Sirgy, 1991; Katz, 2003; Ledgerwood, Liviatan, & Carnevale, 2007; Munson & Spivey, 1980).

Since symbolic value is critical in consumers' purchase behavior, it has been the topic of study in both advertising and marketing (Batra et al., 2000; Wong & Ahuvia, 1998; Zhou & Hui, 2003). Batra et al. (2000) investigated the symbolic values of nonlocal products and brands. The researchers argued that "the apparent increase in demand across the world for certain wellknown brands such as Coca-Cola and Levi's may be largely because they are seen by consumers as symbols of the freedom and affluent lifestyles of the West, and not because they are seen as global brands per se" (p. 94). They also found that the symbolic values of products are more important factors in purchasing products than utilitarian values. Similarly, Zhou and Hui (2003) found that the symbolic value of inexpensive food products also plays a significant role in consumers' purchase intention. The results showed that symbolic values are more important in determining purchase intention than are utilitarian values (e.g., better quality, better hygiene, and higher nutrition). Furthermore, Wong and Ahuvia (1998) suggested that some can see products as having an instrumental value, hedonic value, and symbolic value. Symbolic value is especially important when consumers purchase luxury items.

Most studies regarding symbolic value have related to products, and only a few have examined the effects of property (e.g., building, place) on symbolic value. In this regard, this study extends the usability of symbolic value to media research, especially OOH advertising media.

Distinctiveness

Some have considered the concept of distinctiveness as important in marketing and consumer research, in that distinctiveness helps consumers easily identify a brand in the market (Ehrenberg et al., 2002). For example, Coca-Cola uses the color red and the contour bottle to make its brand distinctive in the market; thus, these color and shape of the bottle help consumers easily recognize and identify Coke. In terms of advertising strategies, some regard distinctiveness as an important cue to create effective advertisements (Ehrenberg et al., 2002). Advertising strategies can emphasize an image of the brand itself by creatively publicizing the brand in advertising deprived of persuasive messages or functional information about the brand. Competitive brands in the market are often distinctive to other similar brands in a category (Ehrenberg et al., 2002). In terms of distinctiveness, color is an essential element for distinctive brands (Gendall &Hoek, 2010; Ju, 2013). A familiar color of a brand helps consumers identify a brand easily, as the color of the brand remains in consumers' minds (Gendall & Hoek, 2010).

To achieve distinctiveness so consumers can perceive a brand easily when they are in a purchasing situation, reminding them of a brand is important (Romaniuk, Sharp, &. Ehrenberg, 2007). The key to building distinctiveness is repetition of the same strategy (Romaniuk, Sharp, & Ehrenberg, 2007). Rather than finding the color consumers prefer, using the same colors, regardless of the colors themselves, contributes to establishing the distinctiveness. This distinctiveness is one of the core ingredients for identifying a brand (Stokburger-Sauer & Ratneshwar, 2012). Having distinctiveness helps marketers maintain efficient marketing communication, since consumers are already predisposed to the ideas of a certain brand (Gendall & Hoek, 2010).

Based on the literature above, this study adopts the concept of distinctiveness to measure viewers' perceived distinctiveness on billboard media in New York. Since media for marketing purposes (e.g., brands and advertising) are based on consumers' perceptions, this study uses the concept of distinctiveness to measure the perceptions of billboard media. Therefore, this study examines the effectiveness of congruence between the environment and media on the distinctiveness of billboard media, proposing positive relationships between the two concepts. Therefore, we hypothesize the following:

HI: Congruence will influence the distinctiveness of billboard media positively.

Next, the effects of symbolic value on distinctiveness can also be a proposition. Symbolic value refers to the image transfer between brands and consumers, and this study uses the concept of symbolic value to the relationship between media and advertisers, thereby extending the usability of the concept. Given that advertisers purchase Times Square billboard media due to the symbolic value of the renowned media, it is conceivable that advertisers aim to obtain image transfer effects. This means that the concept of symbolic value can apply to the advertisers' relationship with the media, and provides theoretical support for the second hypothesis. Taken together, we hypothesize the following:

H2 : Symbolic value will influence the distinctiveness of billboard media positively.

Emotional Response

For the past two decades, consumers' emotional response (ER) to advertising has been one of the major issues in advertising research (e.g., Burke & Edell, 1989; Holbrook &. Batra, 1987; Morris, 1995; Morris, Woo, &. Cho, 2003; Morris et al., 2009). A substantial number of studies have suggested that feelings or emotional responses toward advertising influence consumers' attitudes toward the ad, advertised brand, and behavior (Burke & Edell, 1989; Holbrook & Batra, 1987; Morris et al., 2002; Stayman & Batra, 1991). According to the Advertising Research Foundation (ARF) copy-testing project, emotions were "a direct influence on behavior that is not captured or summed up by attitude judgments" (Allen, Machleit, &. Kleine, 1992, p. 500). ER becomes an important factor, since it could supplement cognitive response research that mainly focuses on attitudes toward ads and advertised brands (Batra & Ray, 1986).

In our study, we adopt emotional responses for measuring the effectiveness of billboard advertising. The pleasure, arousal, and dominance (PAD) theory is a well-known emotion theory that appropriately describes human emotions via three dimensions such as pleasure, arousal, and dominance (Morris & Boone, 1998). For the past five decades, researchers have studied and determined that these three independent, distinct dimensions are the key determinants of human emotions (Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957). Later, Russell and Mehrabian (1977) reemphasized that the full spectrum of human emotion can be measured with the three independent emotions such as pleasure, arousal, and dominance. Since then, the PAD theory has been part of studying emotions within the context of marketing and consumer behavior (Christ, 1985; Christ & Biggers, 1984; Morris, Woo, & Cho, 2003; Morris et al., 2009). Therefore, in our research, we adopt emotional responses (Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance) to determine the effectiveness of advertising, and propose congruence as an antecedent of emotional responses. As such, we hypothesize the following:

H3: Congruence will influence consumers' emotions toward billboard media positively.

Distinctiveness can he another antecedent of emotional responses toward billboard media. Distinctiveness is effective on attitudes and purchase intentions across product categories, regardless of involvement levels (Ju, 2013). In this regard, the relationship between distinctiveness and consumer emotion can be a proposition. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis:

H4: Distinctiveness will influence consumers' emotions toward billboard media positively.

Based on the roles of symbolic value and distinctiveness, we explore the relationship with media value. Ducoffe (1996) suggested the concept of advertising value. Originally, it was advertising value, but there can be an adaptation to the value of media. Johar and Sirgy (1991) documented that values are a powerful predictor of subsequent attitudes. Given that values play an important role in the perceptions of consumer evaluations, media value can be the consequence of symbolic value and distinctiveness, which we discussed earlier. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

H5 : Symbolic value will influence the value of billboard media positively.

H6: Distinctiveness will influence the value of billboard media positively.

Emotion can be set as an antecedent of media and advertising. Given that emotional responses frequently are influencing factors on attitudes or intentions (Morris et ah, 2002), researchers can use this concept of emotion in media evaluations. Accordingly, the effects of emotional responses on the value perceptions of billboard media and attitudes toward billboard advertising can be a proposition. Thus,

H7: Emotion will influence the value of billboard media positively.

H8: Emotion will influence attitudes toward billboard advertising positively.

The perception of media links easily to advertising in terms of its media. The advertising literature well documents the relationships. In particular, advertising value links to attitudes toward web advertising (Ducoffe, 1996) and highway tollgate advertising in terms of OOH advertising (Ji, Han, & Jun, 2014). Extending these relationships to media value perspectives, we proposed the relationship between media value and attitudes toward billboard advertising as the last hypothesis in this study. Therefore, our final hypothesis is the following:

H9: Media value will influence attitudes toward billboard advertising positively.

Methodology

Our study applied online survey research to examine the suggested model. Therefore, we collected data samples from the general population. We chose people in the United States as the initial process for exploring viewers' perceptions toward billboard media in New York. We collected data from the general population intending to identify general viewers' perceptions toward advertising media in metropolitan areas.

Sample

We conducted the method of an online survey (Amazon Mechanical Turk) to address the hypotheses in our research. We recruited a total of three hundred sixteen (N =316) participants via paid online survey panels. Out of the total sample, more females (N= 177, 56%) participated than males (N- 139, 44%) in the study. The age of respondents ranged from 19 to 73, (M= 38).

Measurement

We tested six latent constructs in the current study: congruence, symbolic value, distinctiveness, emotional response, media value, and attitude toward billboard advertising. First, we measured congruence (Gwinner, 1997) by three items with seven-point scales (Strongly disagree/Strongly agree). The items includes, "The billboard media in Times Square and New York have a similar image," "The ideas I associate with the billboard media at the Time Square are related to the ideas I associate with New York," and "My image of the billboard media at the Time Square is very different from the image I have of New York."

We measured symbolic values (Tsai, 2005) by 4 items with seven-point scales (Strongly disagree/Strongly agree). The items comprise of, "The execution of this billboard media will indicate that the advertiser is a company with taste," "The execution of this billboard media will prevent the advertiser from looking cheap," "The media enhance the perception that the advertiser has a desirable corporate style," and "The media will help the advertiser to better fit into the business setting."

We measured distinctiveness (Yoo, Donthu, &. Lee, 2000) by four items with seven-point scales (Strongly disagree/Strongly agree). The items include, "I know what the billboard media in Times Square in New York look like," "I can recognize the billboard media in Times Square in New York among competing outdoor media," "I am aware of the billboard media in Times Square in New York," "Some characteristics of the billboard media in Times Square in New York come to mind quickly," "I can quickly recall the billboard media in Times Square in New York," and "I have difficulty imaging the billboard media in Times Square in New York in my mind."

We measured emotional responses toward billboard media by AdSAM®, an attitude selfassessment manikin based on the SAM scale (Morris, 1995). Based on the PAD theory, this measurement includes three independent graphically presented characters with 9-point scales. In particular, Pleasure aims to measure how positive/negative the participant feels toward the ads; Arousal aims to measure how involved the participant is in the feeling; and Dominance aims to measure how empowered the participant feels.

We measured media value (Ducoffe, 1996) by three items with seven-point scales (Strongly disagree/Strongly agree). The items include, "I think the billboard media in Times Square in New York are useful," "I think the billboard media in Times Square in New York are valuable," and "I think the billboard media in Times Square in New York are important."

We measured attitude toward billboard advertising media (Muehling, 1987) by three items with seven-point bipolar adjectives. The scale consists of three independent questions: "Bad" to "Good"; "Negative" to "Positive"; and "Unfavorable to "Favorable."

Results

We used structural equation analysis to test the nine research hypotheses in the present study. We used AMOS 21 to perform the data analyses. As Figure 1 illustrates, the exogenous variables were congruence and symbolic value. Four endogenous variables included distinctiveness, emotional response, media value, and attitude toward billboard advertising.

The hypothesized research model showed suitable results of estimating goodness of fit, in which an X2/degrees of freedom ratio was estimated as 2.89 in the suggested model (X2 - 578.85, df - 200). The Comparative Fit Index (CFI) was .93; the Incremental Fit Index (IFI) was .93; and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) was .078. Based on the results above, the proposed model was adequate.

To improve the model, we first examined the significance of the regression weights. We inspected the Modification Indices to identify any inappropriate paths or relationships. The additional analysis identified two observed variables in the distinctiveness construct that had abnormally high scores on the Modification Indices (M.I. = 48.504). Thus, we co-varied them to obtain a more adequate model fit. The revised model shows the enhanced model fit, illustrating that the X2 (522.91) / df (199) ratio = 2.63, CFI = .94, IFI = .94, and RMSEA = .072.

For the next step, we examined the significance of regression weights for each construct in the proposed model. Results supported eight of the nine hypotheses at p < .05. In particular, results supported hypotheses one and two, in that congruence (HI: y = .62, p < .01) and symbolic value (H2: y = .17, p < .01) related positively to distinctiveness. In addition, results supported hypotheses three and four, since congruence (H3: y = .29, p < .01) and distinctiveness (H4: ß = .21, p < .05) related positively to emotional response to billboard media. In support of hypothesis five, symbolic value (H5: y = .51, p < .01) related positively to media value, but not distinctiveness (H6: ß = -.018, p > .05). Emotional response to billboard media related positively to media value (H7: ß = .41, p < .01). Last, emotional response to billboard media (H8: ß = .27, p < .01) and media value (H9: ß = .74, p < .01) predicted attitude toward billboard advertising.

Discussion and Implications

This study attempts to validate the proposed effect model of billboard advertising media, incorporating various conceptual constructs into the model. We summarize the findings of this study as follows: congruence (HI) and symbolic value (H2) influenced media distinctiveness. Congruence (H3) and distinctiveness (H4) influenced the emotional response toward billboard media. Symbolic value (H5) influenced media value, but distinctiveness did not affect media value (H6). Emotion linked positively to media value (H7) and attitude toward billboard advertising (H8). Media value had a positive relationship with attitude toward billboard advertising (H9).

These empirical findings have unique academic implications regarding billboard advertising effects. Traditionally, measuring OOH advertising effects has been a complicated issue among advertising academics. Although some believe OOH media can generate tremendous exposure to drivers, passengers, and pedestrians, it is difficult to measure this exposure systematically (e.g., Cheon, Jun, & Park, 2015; Lichtenthal, Yadav, & Donthu, 2006; Roux & Van der Waldt, 2016). Even the quality of the exposure is in doubt because consumers do not pay attention to OOH media intentionally. However, advertisers invest a great portion of their marketing budget on OOH advertising, and academics need to provide rational support for OOH advertising execution. This study provides empirical support for billboard media value and its effects on billboard advertising. This empirical support is the main academic implication of this study.

More specifically, we found congruence and symbolic value to be significant antecedents of billboard media. We operationally defined Congruence as "the fit between media and city environment" in this study, meaning that as more people perceive the fit, the better they evaluate the media. In other words, the location of media is an important variable when advertisers choose billboard advertising media to advertise their brands. The other variable, symbolic value, refers to "the fit between the media and images of advertisers." We propose that symbolic value of billboard media in Times Square can transfer to advertisers, and this study confirmed the effect hierarchy of billboard media. This research proved symbolic value to be a meaningful concept influencing media distinctiveness and media value perceptions. This finding could support the high advertising costs in Times Square advertisers pay.

Distinctiveness was a main mediator in the research model. Although we could not find a direct relationship with media value, we found distinctiveness mediated relationships among congruence, symbolic value, and emotional response. This implies that distinctiveness links to the more affective responses of consumers. Conceptually, distinctiveness is different from differentiation, which refers to more cognitive perception. However, distinctiveness relates more to the creative elements and affective responses of consumers (Romaniuk, Sharp, & Ehrenberg, 2007). In this regard, it is another implication in finding the mediating roles of media distinctiveness.

Furthermore, we found a relationship between media and advertising. Specifically, we found both emotional response and media value perceptions to be important antecedents of attitude toward billboard advertising. Emotional response influenced attitude toward billboard advertising, and media value mediated the relationship. The finding indicates that both cognitive and emotional evaluations on media directly affect attitude toward advertising. The present research also shows media and advertising relate closely to consumer perceptions. Since the first role of billboard media is to draw and attract consumer attention in the advertising business, the results of this study illustrates that the characteristics of media should receive strategic management because media need to exude a particular attractiveness to consumers. Effective advertising media are an important element.

In addition to the academic implications, our study provides potential managerial implications concerning media planning of billboard advertising. Since the media environment becomes increasingly complicated due to emergence of new media, the role of media planning becomes more important. The findings could contain informative guidelines of billboard media for advertisers or media planners at advertising agencies. The hierarchy of consumer perception provides a rationale for the selection of billboard media, given that the individual constructs in the effect model can be significant checkpoints of billboard media. Because congruence and symbolic value are critical elements, these two concepts can become criteria when choosing individual billboard media. At least, we suggest the advertiser avoid billboard media containing incongruent images with the advertisers or brands. That is, we recommend harmonizing billboard media with their respective environments. According to the empirical findings, billboard media with distinctive characteristics can serve as effective advertising media because those media could attract people's gazes. Our study adds insightful information concerning a strategic understanding of billboard media, and provides reasons as to why location is so important for OOH media.

We can raise another implication in terms of the advertising creativity of billboard media. Advertising effects can classify into two categories, such as message effects and media effects. Message effects refer to advertising creativity, and media effects relate to effects stemming from media characteristics, including exposure. Therefore, media effects are different from message effects. However, image fit and symbolic value can apply to relationships with advertising creative appeals. For example, image congruence between advertising creativity and town images could enhance the message effects of the billboard media, and advertising creativity might need to match with the media. Another implication is the application of distinctiveness. Given that media distinctiveness is an important factor in the effect model, advertising creativity could balance with the distinctive images of billboard media. OOH media might be different from general media because the media format could be creative itself. For example, the unique shapes of the outdoor media can be a tool of advertising creativity, and advertising messages could use shapes as a part of advertising expressions. In this regard, advertisers should consider the characteristics of billboard media and incorporate them into creative expressions.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

A limitation of this study comes from the generalizability of the results, due to the limited location of the billboard media. Even though this study used general samples of U.S. residents, research media had the limitation of billboard media located in Time Squares in New York. Future studies can remediate this limitation by exploring billboard media located at various places to generalize the results of this study. The overall picture may differ and yield insightful findings if future studies explore local highway billboard media as research targets.

Sidebar

Discussion Questions

1. What are the individual latent constructs affecting billboard advertising effects?

2. How will congruence, symbolic values, and distinctiveness influence consumers' billboard advertising attitudes?

3. How will congruence, symbolic values, and distinctiveness influence consumers' media emotion and media values?

4. How will consumers' media emotion and media values impact their billboard advertising attitudes?

References

References

Aaker, J. L. (1999). The malleable self: The role of self-expression in persuasion. Journal of Marketing Research, 36(1), 45-57.

Allen, C. T., Machleit, K. A., & Kleine, S. S. (1992). A comparison of attitudes and emotions as predictors of behavior at diverse levels of behavioral experience. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(4), 493-504.

Andreassen, T. W., & Lanseng, E. J. (2010). Service differentiation: A self-image congruency perspective on brand building in the labor market. Journal of Service Management, 21(2), 212-236.

Atkin, C., &. Block, M. (1983). Effectiveness of celebrity endorsers. Journal of Advertising Research, 23(1), 57-61.

Bae, Y. EL, Jun, J. W., &. Hough, M. (2016). Uses and Gratifications of Digital Signage and Relationships with User Interface. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 1-9.

Batra, R., &. Ray, M. L. (1986). Affective responses mediating acceptance of advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 13(2), 234-249.

Batra, R., Ramaswamy, V., Alden, D. L., Steenkamp, J. B. E., & Ramachander, S. (2000). Effects of brand local and nonlocal origin on consumer attitudes in developing countries. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 9(2), 83-95.

Bosnjak, M., Sirgy, M. J., Hellriegel, S., &. Maurer, O. (2011). Post visit destination loyalty judgments developing and testing a comprehensive congruity model. Journal of Travel Research, 50(5), 496-508.

Burke, M. C., &. Edell, J. A. (1989). The impact of feelings on ad-based affect and cognition. Journal of Marketing Research, 26(1), 69-83.

Cheon, Y., & Jun, J. W. (2012). Strategic effects of global brand positioning on brand perceptions and purchase intentions: A focus on consumers of the brand origin country. Advertising Research, 92, 135-173.

Cheon, Y., Jun, J. W., & Park, H. (2015). Factors influencing OOH advertising effects: A prediction model for billboard advertising. In Paper presented at The 2015 AEJMC Annual Conference. San Francisco, CA.

Choi, S. M., &. Rifon, N. J. (2012). It Is a Match: The impact of congruence between celebrity image and consumer ideal self on endorsement effectiveness. Psychology & Marketing, 29(9), 639-650. ' '

Christ, W. G. (1985). Voter preference and emotion: Using emotional response to classify decided and undecided voters .Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15(3), 237-254.

Christ, W. G., & Biggers, T. (1984). An exploratory investigation into the relationship between television program preference and emotion-eliciting qualities- A new theoretical perspective. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 48(3), 293-307.

Dennis, C., Brakus, J. J., Melewar, T. C., Gupta, S., & Alamanos, E. (2014). Digital signage effects on shoppers' behaviour: The role of the evoked experience. Journal of Business Research, 67( 11), 2250-2257.

Dennis, C., Michon, R., & Newman, A. (2010). The appeal of a town's separately branded environments to market segments and the segmented appeal of digital signage. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 6(2), 156-175.

Ducoffe, R. H. (1996). Advertising value and advertising on the Web. Journal of Advertising Research, 36(5), 21-35.

Ehrenberg, A. S. C., Barnard, N. R., Kennedy, R., &. Bloom, H. (2002). Brand advertising as creative publicity. Journal of Advertising Research, 42(4), 7-18.

Gardner, B. B., & Levy, S. J. (1955). The product and the brand. Harvard Business Review, 33(2), 33-39.

Gendall, P., & Hoek, J. (2010). Colors, brands, and trademarks: The marketing (and legal) problem of establishing distinctiveness. Journal of Advertising Research, 50(3), 316-322.

Gwinner, K. P. (1997). A model of image creation and image transfer in event sponsorship. International Marketing Review, 14(3), 145-58.

Hogg, M. K., Cox, A. J., & Keeling, K. (2000). The impact of self-monitoring on image congruence and product/brand evaluation. European Journal of Marketing, 34(5/6), 641 - 667.

Holbrook, M. B., & Batra, R. (1987). Assessing the role of emotions as mediators of consumer responses to advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 14(3), 404-420.

Ji, J. H., Han, K. S., & Jun, J. W. (2014). Influences of OOH advertising values and hindrance perceptions on advertising attitudes and avoidance: A focus on highway tollgate advertising. Journal of Outdoor Advertising Research, 11(1), 75-92.

Johar, J. S., & Sirgy, M. J. (1991). Value-expressive versus utilitarian advertising appeals: When and why to use which appeal. Journal of Advertising, 20(3), 23-33.

Ju, I. (2013). Brand distinctiveness vs. brand differentiation: A consumer perspective. Unpublished master's thesis. College of Journalism and Communication, University of Florida.

Jurca, M. A., & Madlberger, M. (2015). Ambient advertising characteristics and schema incongruity as drivers of advertising effectiveness. Journal of Marketing Communications, 21 ( 1), 48-64.

Kamins, M. A., & Gupta, K. (1994). Congruence between spokesperson and product type: A matchup hypothesis perspective. Psychology & Marketing, 11(6), 569-586.

Katz, H. 2003. The media handbook: A complete guide to advertising media selection, planning, research, and buying (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Kuenzel, S., &. Halliday, S. V. (2010). The chain of effects from reputation and brand personality congruence to brand loyalty: The role of brand identification. Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing, 18(3), 167-176.

Ledgerwood, A., Liviatan, I., & Carnevale, P. J. (2007). Group-identity completion and the symbolic value of property. Psychological Science, 18(10), 873-878.

Lichtenthal, J. D., Yadav, V., &. Donthu, N. (2006). Outdoor advertising for business markets. Industrial Marketing Management, 35(2), 236-247.

Maehle, N., & Shneor, R. (2010). On congruence between brand and human personalities. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 19(1), 44-53.

Markus, H., & Kunda, Z. (1986). Stability and malleability of the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 (4), 858-866.

Mazodier, M., &Merunka, D. (2012). Achieving brand loyalty through sponsorship: The role of fit and self-congruity. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(6), 807-820.

Misra, S., &. Beatty, S. E. (1990). Celebrity spokesperson and brand congruence: An assessment of recall and affect .Journal of Business Research, 21 (2), 159-173.

Morris, J. D. (1995). Observations: SAM: The self- assessment manikin; an efficient cross-cultural measurement of emotional response. Journal of Advertising Research, 35(6), 63-68.

Morris, J. D., &. Boone, M. A. (1998). The effects of music on emotional response, brand attitude, and purchase intent in an emotional advertising condition. Advances in Consumer Research, 25, 518-526.

Morris, J. D., Woo, C., &. Cho, C.-H. (2003). Internet measures of advertising effects: A global issu e. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 25(1), 25-43.

Morris, J. D., Woo, C., Geason, J. A., & Kim, J. (2002). The power of affect: Predicting intention. Journal of Advertising Research, 42(3), 7-17.

Morris, J. D., Klahr, N. J., Shen, F., Villegas, J., Wright, P., He, G., & Liu, Y. (2009). Mapping a multidimensional emotion in response to television commercials. Human Brain Mapping, 3(3), 789-796.

Muehling, D. D. (1987). An investigation of factors underlying attitude-toward-advertising-in-general. Journal of Advertising, 16(1), 32-40.

Munson, J. M., & Spivey, W. A. (1980). Assessing Self-Concept. Advances in Consumer Research, 7, 598-603.

Nienstedt, H. W., Huber, F., & Seelmann, C. (2012). The influence of the congruence between brand and consumer personality on the loyalty to print and online issues of magazine brands. International Journal on Media Management, 14(1), 3-26.

Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., &. Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Park, E., Kim, S. and del Pobil, A. P. (2011). Can I go there? The effects of digital signage on psychology of wayfinding users. Journal of Next Generation Information Technology, 2(4), 47-58. ...

Plewa, C., &. Palmer, K. (2014). Self-congruence theory: Towards a greater understanding of the global and malleable selves in a sports specific consumption context. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 15(4), 239-252.

Pohlman, A., & Mudd, S. (1973). Market image as a function of group and product type: A quantitative approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57(2), 167-171.

Romaniuk, J., Sharp, B., &. Ehrenberg, A. (2007). Evidence concerning the importance of perceived brand differentiation. Australasian Marketing Journal, 15(2), 42-54.

Roux, A. T., & Van der Waldt, D. L. R. (2016). Toward a Model to Enhance Synergy of Out-of-Home Advertising Media Integration Strategies. Journal of Promotion Management, 386-402.

Russell, J., & Mehrabian, A. (1977). Evidence for a three-factor theory of emotions. Journal of Research in Personality, 11(3), 273-294.

Schaeffler, J. (2012). Digital signage: Software, networks, advertising, and displays: A primer for understanding the business. Burlington, MA: CRC Press.

Sirgy, M. J. (1986). Self-congruity: Toward a theory of personality and cybernetics. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group.

Sirgy, M. J., Lee, D.-J., Johar, J. S., & Tidwell, J. (2008). Effect of self-congruity with sponsorship on brand loyalty. Journal of Business Research, 61 (10), 1091-1097.

Stayman, D., & Batra, R. (1991). Encoding and retrieval of ad affect in memory. Journal of Marketing Research, 28(2), 232-239.

Stokhurger-Sauer, N., & Ratneshwar, S. (2012). Drivers of consumer-brand identification. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 29(4), 406-418.

Taylor, C. R. (2015). Creating win-win situations via advertising: new developments in digital out-of-home advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 34(2), 177-180.

Taylor, C. R., Franke, G. R., &Bang, H. (2006). Use and effectiveness of billboards: Perspectives from selective-perception theory and retail-gravity models. Journal of Advertising, 35(4), 21-34.

Tsai, S. (2005). Utility, cultural symbolism and emotion: A comprehensive model of brand purchase value. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 22 (3), 277-291.

Varadarajan, P. R., &. Menon, A. (1988). Cause related marketing: A co-alignment of marketing strategy and corporate philanthropy. Journal of Marketing, 52(3), 58-74.

van Rompay, T. J., &. Pruyn, A. T. (2011). When visual product features speak the same language: Effects of shape-typeface congruence on brand perception and price expectations. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 28(4), 599-610.

Wong, N. Y., & Ahuvia, A. C. (1998). Personal taste and family face: Luxury consumption in Confucian and Western societies. Psychology and Marketing, 15(5), 423-441.

Yoo, B., Donthu, N., & Lee, S. (2000). An examination of selected marketing mix elements and brand equity. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(2), 195-211.

Zhou, L., &. Hui, M. K. (2003). Symbolic value of foreign products in the People's Republic of China. Journal of International Marketing, 11 (2), 36-58.

To Cite this Article

Jun, J. W., Bae, Y, H., Ju, I., & Chung, J. (2016, Summer). The effect model of billboard advertising media. Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 8(2), 15-31.