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Instr Sci (2013) 41:124
DOI 10.1007/s11251-012-9205-x
Stephen K. Reed Albert Corbett Bob Hoffman Angela Wagner
Ben MacLaren
Received: 7 June 2011 / Accepted: 6 January 2012 / Published online: 20 January 2012 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract Algebra students studied either static-table, static-graphics, or interactive-graphics instructional worked examples that alternated with Algebra Cognitive Tutor practice problems. A control group did not study worked examples but solved both the instructional and practice problems on the Cognitive Tutor (CT). Students in the control group requested fewer hints and made fewer errors on the CT practice problems but required more learning time on the instructional examples. There was no difference among the four groups in constructing equations on a paper-and-pencil posttest or on a delayed test that included training and transfer problems. However, students who studied worked examples with a table were best at identifying the meaning of the equation components. The concept of transfer-appropriate processing (the overlap between instructional task and assessment task) aided our interpretation of the ndings. Although the CT had a short-term effect on reducing errors and hint requests on CT practice problems, the worked examples were as effective on delayed paper-and-pencil tests. The subsequent construction of a new module for the Animation Tutor (Reed and Hoffman, Animation Tutor: Mixtures. Instructional software, 2011) used both the interactive-graphics and static-table worked examples to take advantage of the complementary strengths of different representations (Ainsworth, Learn Instr 16:183198, 2006).
Keywords Cognitive Tutor Transfer-appropriate processing Worked examples
Word problems
A broad ongoing debate in instructional design concerns the relative effectiveness of minimally guided instruction versus direct instructional guidance. Kirschner et al. (2006) argue that direct instruction improves learning outcomes by reducing the students need to search for solutions. They argue that such search activities tie up limited working memory
S. K. Reed (&) B. Hoffman
CRMSE, San Diego State University, 6475 Alvarado Road, San Diego, CA 92182, USA e-mail: [email protected]
A. Corbett A. Wagner B. MacLaren
Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Effect of worked examples and Cognitive Tutor training on constructing equations
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capacity without directly leading to learning. Hmelo-Silver et al. (2007) respond to Kirschner et al.s (2006) claim by arguing that inquiry learning is often effective because...