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1. Introduction
Internet resources have become a necessity for all organizations to be a part of their business processes (Baturay and Toker, 2015). Effectively utilizing the Internet resource can lead to various positive ramifications such as reduced operational costs, effective communications among employees and better job performance (Anandarajan et al., 2000). Ideally, the Internet is expected to be a tool for facilitating employees' job performance. However, the Internet can also be utilized as a medium to slack (Moody and Siponen, 2013). That is, employees are given the opportunities not to work by participating in online engagements unassociated with job tasks, like accessing YouTube, sending personal messages via WhatsApp and browsing non-work-related websites (Lim, 2002; Lim and Teo, 2005). The growing duration employees spend for online engagements unassociated with job tasks in the workplace has become an increasing concern for many organizations (Jandaghi et al., 2015). Academic scholars have used the term cyberloafing to describe employees' online engagements unassociated with job tasks during work (Koay and Soh, 2018). Cyberloafing is a form of production deviance behavior and organizations should not take it lightly because once employees have developed the habit of cyberloafing, organizations might have a hard time to eradicate such negative behavior (Moody and Siponen, 2013). Employees' time spent on online engagements unassociated with job tasks might benefit them but is harmful to their organizations because cyberloafing is a crime against productivity as the hours spent on cyberloafing should have been utilized for work responsibilities (Koay and Soh, 2019).
Cyberloafing is a prevalent management issue as a survey report showed that 60% of workers disclose how they had used the Internet for activities unassociated with job tasks (StaffMonitoring.com, 2015). Various similar reports also displayed the consistent results that employees spend about 40–60% of allocated work time on engagements unassociated with job tasks. For instance, a research which involved 226 Singaporean workers done by Lim and Teo (2005) showed their online engagements unassociated with job tasks for 2.7 hours per day. Furthermore, Restubog et al. (2011) reported that employees spend approximately 3 hours and 12 minutes on online engagements unassociated with job tasks throughout work duration. Anecdotal evidence suggested that employees waste about 5 hours per day on online activities which are unassociated...