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This article reviews and synthesizes the uses of expert-based information in policy subsystems. The review begins by summarizing the different uses of information in the multiple streams theory, the punctuated equilibrium theory, the social construction theory, and the advocacy coalition framework. Three uses of expert-based information are identified as instrumental, learning, and political. The three uses of expert-based information are then compared across unitary, collaborative, and adversarial policy subsystems. This article synthesizes the findings in a set of propositions about the use of expert-based information in policy subsystems and about the factors that contribute to shifts from one policy subsystem to another.
KEY WORDS: science, collaborative management, the advocacy coalition framework, policy processes, policymaking, policy process theories
Introduction
The policy process is often conceptualized as a complex system of inputs and outputs (Easton, 1965). Among all the inputs and outputs, one of the most important is information. A deep literature exists about the role of information in various policymaking contexts (Adams, 2004; De Witt, 1994; Fischer, 2000; Ingram, Schneider, & McDonald, 2004; Jenkins-Smith, 1990; Kingdon, 1995; Knorr, 1977; Lee, 1993; Ozawa, 1991; PeIz, 1978; Rich, 1991; Sabatier, 1987; Weiss, 1979; van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006). This literature shows that the use of information in policymaking ranges from the instrumental, where information directly impacts policy, to the political, where information is used to argue against an opponent (Knorr, 1977; PeIz, 1978; Rich, 1975). Over long periods of time, information can also foster learning, belief change, and policy change (Sabatier, 1987; Weiss, 1977). This article reviews the science and policy literature to generate propositions about (i) the different uses of expert-based information across three types of policy subsystems; and (ii) the expected role of expertbased information in contributing to shifts between policy subsystems.
Expert-based information is defined as content generated by professional, scientific, and technical methods of inquiry (Adams, 2004; van Kerkhoff & Lebel, 2006). It is often, but not always, based on accepted analytical approaches as defined by professional peers. The sources of expert-based information include the social and natural sciences, policy analyses, government reports, and research coming from universities, think tanks, and consulting firms. Likewise, the term "expert" includes policy analysts, scientists, and researchers in government and nongovernment organizations. Expert-based information is not restricted...