Gambling and sports betting by teenagers

Abstract

This study presents research on the opinions and behaviours towards gambling and sports betting of 150 high school students and on the formative cycle in animation and physical sports activities (hereinafter: TAFAD) at the public educational centre in the city of Valencia (Spain). The results show that there are 50% of adolescent men and less than 20% of adolescent women who bet or have bet. However, it was determined that 15% of men bet more money than expected; 5.6% of men used money that was not theirs to gamble; in addition, 6.7% of men and 3.3% of women borrowed money to gamble. A total of 13.5% of men and 3.3% of women stated that they had arguments about betting with relatives and/or friends. Finally, it was determined that 46% of men and 39.3% of womenbelieved that betting was a problem in their life; 6.7% of men believed that they needed professional help, and none of woman believed that they needed professional help. TAFAD students are the largest bettinggroup, followed by third- and fourth-year secondary education students in the case of gambling, followed by the first-year of secondary education students in the case of sports betting. A total of 47% of men,who do sports, gamble, compared to 30.3% of those who do not do sports. However, with respect to sports betting, of those who do sports, 47% bet, compared to 38.5% of those who do not do sports. Finally, it was determined that gender and the course of study affect the bettingbehaviour. However, the results for individuals whodo sports differ from the results of those who do not do sports.

Headnote

Published online: March 31, 2020

(Accepted for publication: February 03, 2020)

Abstract

This study presents research on the opinions and behaviours towards gambling and sports betting of 150 high school students and on the formative cycle in animation and physical sports activities (hereinafter: TAFAD) at the public educational centre in the city of Valencia (Spain). The results show that there are 50% of adolescent men and less than 20% of adolescent women who bet or have bet. However, it was determined that 15% of men bet more money than expected; 5.6% of men used money that was not theirs to gamble; in addition, 6.7% of men and 3.3% of women borrowed money to gamble. A total of 13.5% of men and 3.3% of women stated that they had arguments about betting with relatives and/or friends. Finally, it was determined that 46% of men and 39.3% of womenbelieved that betting was a problem in their life; 6.7% of men believed that they needed professional help, and none of woman believed that they needed professional help. TAFAD students are the largest bettinggroup, followed by third- and fourth-year secondary education students in the case of gambling, followed by the first-year of secondary education students in the case of sports betting. A total of 47% of men,who do sports, gamble, compared to 30.3% of those who do not do sports. However, with respect to sports betting, of those who do sports, 47% bet, compared to 38.5% of those who do not do sports. Finally, it was determined that gender and the course of study affect the bettingbehaviour. However, the results for individuals whodo sports differ from the results of those who do not do sports.

Keywords :Sports betting, gambling, teenagers, addictive behaviours

Introduction

Both sports betting and gambling are increasingly common among teenagers, leading to a dramatic rise in addictive behaviours at this age. There are more and more physical and virtual points in which to bet or play, and added to this, there is a great media exposure of these companies that also appear linked to clubs and players. Teenagers observe how their referents normalize this behaviour, so that measures of responsible gambling have very little effect on the behaviour of young people.

These behaviours are causing pathologies and addictions at an early age, in addition to the associated economic problems. That is why it is of interest to carry out research in this sense, to understand this phenomenon, dimension it and be able to show the negative consequences it can produce. This work becomes even more important in the stage analysed in this study, the secondary stage, since it is still a formative stage, in which the generation of healthy habits or, at least, the awareness of undesirable habits or behaviours has a great influence and can affect the future behaviour of students. This objective is often difficult to achieve, due to the low awareness of some people of the problem and the banalisation of sports betting, to which the advertisements, sponsors and, ultimately, the sports clubs that accept these sponsorships and serve as a loudspeaker for the transmission of these elements contribute greatly.

In the present research, an analysis has been made of the opinions and behaviours of adolescents regarding gambling and sports betting, with the aim of placing the focus on the problem and showing evidence of a reality that for many is still unknown. To this end, a theoretical framework has been carried out to understand the different conceptualizations and aspects that form part of the subject, and then to define the method used, the results obtained and the discussion and conclusions

Theoretical Framework

The study of behaviours linked to gambling is an issue that is currently gaining special importance, due to the proliferation of this type of companies both physically and online, and due to the alarming data on the percentages of teenagers who are involved in this type of activities. This topic is being further studied, as there are more and more players, both young and old. Until the last decade it was difficult to find research on gambling, both nationally and abroad, to study its incidence among the youth and adolescent group. (Sarabia, Estévez, & Herrero, 2014b).Gambling behaviours are the only non-substance addiction that is officially recognized in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (López-González, Estévez, & Griffiths, 2018).

Prior research

Although the problem with gambling, especially those that are online, can be considered as something recent, there is some research that analyses the possible addictive behaviours, relating it to different variables such as gender, age or school year (Ruiz-Olivares, Lucena, Pino, & Herruzo, 2010). The results of that study indicate that 94.7% of respondents used Internet regularly, 0.7% abusive, and that there were few with problems with gambling, being 1.3% of the total.

This problem is relatively new among young people, as well as among researchers, and is favoured by aspects such as advertising, slogans and the linking of betting companies to celebrities that can be particularly attractive to young people and adolescents (Sklar & Derevensky, 2010)Companies, trivializing to a certain extent their use since, those who for them are referents or idols, endorse such practices. Authors such as Buil, SoléMoratilla, & García-Ruíz (2015) show that this type of information has a direct impact on young people, due to their messages through live broadcasts, messages, websites or mobile applications and, bearing in mind that teenagers are very vulnerable to addictions, with that related to gambling increasingly present in society (Chóliz & Lamas, 2017). On the other hand, studies such as that of Rubio-García (2018) show that the advertising of gambling and sports betting is related to the participation of adolescents in this type of activities. In addition, there are also cases of teenagers who, although they have never gambled, are familiar with technical aspects of gambling (Pitt, Thomas, Bestman, Daube, & Derevensky,2017) so they know how it works, often because they can be part of the comments or opinions that are generated among teenagers. This technical knowledge can be an element that turns against them, since the feeling of controlling the functioning, can generate a perception that they know more information than necessary to bet and that can bring success in their behaviours.

Studies such as Nyemcsok et al. (2018) have also been found, indicating that some young people (more boys than girls) would have an interest in trying gambling and betting once they come of age. In addition, following the proposal of these same authors, the majority of young people have a great recall and knowledge of marketing strategies, which, together with this future intention described, could reduce their perception of the risks and problems related to gambling. When we talk about this perceived risk, we see that the greater the adolescent, the less risk he or she perceives with respect to gambling. (Rubio-García, 2018) since the perceived ability and the sense of experience due to previous actions in this type of activities comes into play. With this information, we see the need for improvements in existing programs on the prevention of gambling in young people, so that specialists have better strategies to avoid this type of behaviour, raising awareness about the risks and controlling to a greater extent the addictive behaviours in young people (Cantero & Bertolín, 2015).

The data is really alarming. If we look at studies carried out in other contexts, such as Olason et al. (2011) in Icelandic adolescents, we see that 56.6% of those surveyed between 13 and 18 years old had participated in some kind of betting in the last year. These data are refuted in this study in the Spanish context, as will be seen later in the results section.

Adolescents and Information and Communication Technologies

Information and communication technologies (hereinafter ICT) are very present among adolescents, both in the family environment, with their friends and, increasingly, in the classroom, given its use as a methodological tool. ICT play a fundamental role in the incidence of the development of pathological problems in young people (King, Delfabbro, & Griffiths, 2010; McBride & Derevensky, 2009), since adolescents, having Internet access from anywhere and at any time, have more facilities to create and develop such gambling problems. The new digital scenarios are added to the offline or modified face-to-face spaces (Sarabia et al., 2014b) that are becoming more and more frequent in Spanish cities, surprisingly also in cities with smaller populations that, a priori, do not have the potential to cover the needs of this type of business. ICT are obviously useful and can simplify our daily activities, and for teenagers, they are attractive and attract a lot of attention, logically because of the large number of activities proposed to them, as well as the immediate interaction with whoever and wherever they are and for the quick answers and rewards (Echeburúa & De Corral, 2010) although it is a source of inappropriate content to which they can have access. That is why it is essential not only to encourage their use to adapt to new behaviours, but also to raise awareness about their responsible use. that is why we must make them aware of how to use them. Data from the National Statistics Institute of Spain (INE, 2018) calculate the use of ICT in the population aged 10 to 15, establishing that computer use is present in 91.3% of them and Internet use in 92.8%, with 69.8% being those with a mobile phone. These results indicate an average for that age group, but if we segment more, we see, for instance, in 15-year-olds, 95% have a mobile device. These data are interesting, since Griffiths & Parke (2010) indicate that there is a greater probability of developing gambling related problems in young people who carry out these behaviours online, compared to those who do so physically.

As mentioned above, ICT should be a tool or resource for adolescents, an element that improves, for instance, their quality of life or the quality of education in certain aspects. But the reality is that, in many cases, the use ceases to be responsible and becomes a very intensive use (Cantero & Bertolín, 2015) so that the possible benefits are overlapped by the drawbacks. On the other hand, and in relation to gambling, the use of ICT is leading to new challenges, such as the arrival of new games through Internet, which reach a larger population and very diverse profiles, resulting in the emergence of new types of players who were previously unrelated (Mazón-Hernández & Chóliz-Montañés, 2012).

Gambling, a new problem for adolescents and society.

According to the General Directorate for the organization of gambling in Spain, in 2018 the number of active single users was 1,465,129, representing an annual increase of 5.24% (DGOJ, 2018). This confirms the increase and, as we have seen so far, the relationship that may exist in which gambling and betting begin to be considered a problem. According to Algarra-Prats & Barceló-Doménech (2015) gambling and sports betting have become social phenomena of growing importance and habitual practice. For teenagers, gambling is a new form of entertainment where economic benefits can be found (Becoña, Míguez, & Vázquez, 2001) and this joins the great accessibility of the Internet, with which minors are very familiar (Buil et al., 2015).In addition, it is an element of socialization, in which, on many occasions, knowing information about how it works is an aspect that allows adolescents to be in certain conversations and feel part of the group that comments on these behaviours. The problem is that behind that fun and that feeling of being able to earn money, there are hidden aspects that can have consequences as negative as addictions with psychoactive substances (Ruiz-Olivares etal., 2010).

One aspect to bear in mind is the possibility of handling fictitious money, because it encourages gambling, since there is no responsibility for losing it (García-Ruiz, Buil, & Solé-Moratilla, 2016), and it can be an element that generates risk in order to take the step of playing with real money, perhaps because of the sense of control over the process, although in gambling the results can be random and unpredictable (García-Ruiz et al., 2016). Another peculiarity within this new problem of betting among adolescents, there is a form of claim in the sector of gambling and betting, is the use of so-called welcome bonuses, which bring a number of clauses and conditions of use that confuse players, but attract the majority of adolescents (Cantero & Bertolín, 2015). These bonuses help to attract players, capture the attention of future participants and make them bet in the future (Cuesta-Cambra, Mañas-Viniegra, Niño-González, & Martínez-Martínez, 2019).

Once the problem has been exposed, it is observed that it makes sense to publish papers such as the one presented here, to make known the reality, to raise awareness of the real problem that exists and to carry out much stricter and more effective regulatory measures to reverse the problem.

Method

In this section, we will explain the sample of the study, the instruments used, the procedure carried out and the data analysis that has been used for a subsequent analysis of results.

Sample

The sample used in this research was taken from an educational centre in Valencia (Spain). The surveys were carried out among secondary school students and also among high school TAFAD students. The total sample was 150 students, 89 men (59.3%) and 61 women (40.7%). In addition to segregating the sample by gender, it was also segmented according to the academic year to which the students belonged, in order to subsequently carry out a more detailed analysis of the results.

The course with the highest number of surveys was third with a total of 58 students (38.7%), followed by TAFAD with 34 students (22.7%), fourth with 33 students (22.0%) and finally first with 25 students (16.7%), the groups being very balanced, as can be seen.

Instrument

The instrument with which all the information for the following work was collected is a survey made up of 19 items, extracted from two articles that are, on the one hand, the Lesieur SOGS (South Oaks Gambling Screen) questionnaire extracted from the contribution of Lesieur & Blume (1987) and, on the other, from the contribution of Mateu (2016). Of the 19 items selected, 3 were oriented to collect information from sociodemographic data such as age, course and gender, another 3 items to know the sports habits of adolescents. Finally, the last part of the questionnaire is made up of the remaining 13 items that refer to what we want to study in this paper, are those related to gambling and sports betting.

Procedure

The work was carried out by means of a survey created by 19 items based on the two articles seen in point 3.2 of this study. Subsequently, informed consent forms were distributed to students in the first, third and fourth years of secondary education, so that they could be signed by their parents or legal tutors and the survey could be carried out once the signed consent form had been delivered. TAFAD students did not need to provide a consent form because the students were of legal age and did not need the signature of their parents.

All the surveys were carried out during the physical education classes. During all the procedure, the interviewer was present to answer any questions the students might have.

Statistical analysis

The results of this work have been analysed through the statistical program SPSS in its version 25. First, an analysis of frequencies and percentages of the different questions related to betting habits in general and sports betting in particular. This analysis has been carried out at a general level and, subsequently, showing the values obtained according to gender, according to the course and according to whether or not the respondents practice sport, to see whether the percentages were distributed in a very similar or very different way according to these grouping criteria. Subsequently, contingency tables have been carried out for the different aspects of interest on sports betting, considering the grouping variables of gender, course and practice or not of physical activity or sport. In this analysis, the chi-square test has been carried out, given that the intention is to check whether these proposed relationships are significant or not, that is to say, whether being a man or a woman, belonging to a certain course or practising or not sport, is significantly related to certain behaviours related to gambling.

Results

This section shows the results obtained from the surveys carried out.

Results by gender

In the results of frequencies and percentages of men and women depending on whether or not they gamble in online or offline gambling, as can be seen in table 1, of the 89 men surveyed, a total of 53 (59.6%) place bets on this type of games, compared to 36 men (40.4%) who do not. Women, on the other hand, gamble less than men as we see in the results, of the 61 total women, only 12 (19.7%) gamble, and 49 (80.3%) of them do not.

In the following table (see table 2) we will see the results obtained according to the frequency with which students make gambling online or offline. In table 2 we can see how of the 53 men who gamble, only 6 (6.7%) do so almost every day, on the other hand a total of 37 (41.6%) gamble sporadically. On the other hand, of the 12 women who gamble, only 1 (1.6%) gamble almost every day, and the remaining 11 (18%) women gamble sporadically.

To continue with the results, we will now analyse the sports betting, whether they bet or not, according to gender. In this case, in table 3 we observe that practically half of the men surveyed 45 (50.6%) make sports betting, and 44 (49.4%) do not. On the other hand, of the 61 total women, only 8 (13.1%) make sports betting, compared to 53 (86.9%) who do not.

In the following table 4, we will see the results obtained according to the frequency with which students makes sports betting according to gender. In this table we observe that the men who bet almost every day are only 2 (2.2%) of the 89 totals, and 30 (33.7%) who bet sporadically. As for women, 2 (3.3%) bet almost every day, and 6 (9.8%) bet sporadically.

Table 5 shows the results related to whether when you bet, you bet more money than you had planned. The results indicate that 13 men (14.8%) have replied that they have bet more than they planned, and 75 (85.2%) that they have not. On the other hand, only 1 woman (1.6%) has ever bet more than she had planned, the rest, 60 (98.4%) have never bet more money than they had planned.

Table 6 shows the results related to whether students have taken money that was not theirs to bet on. In this case, 5 men (5.6%) have taken money that was not theirs to bet, and the rest, 84 (94.4%) have not. In the case of women, none of them, 60 (100%), took money that was not theirs to bet.

Table 7 below tells us if students have ever borrowed money to bet. In the case of men, 6 (6.7%) have ever borrowed money to bet, compared to 83 (93.3%) who have not. As far as the women are concerned, only 2 (3.3%) have ever borrowed money, and 59 (96.7%) have not.

Table 8 discusses whether or not students have argued with family or friends because of gambling. Of the total, 12 men (13.5%) have ever argued with family or friends and 77 (86.5%) have not. As for women, 2 (3.3%) have ever argued with family or friends, and the rest 59 (96.7%) have never argued.

Table 9 discusses whether students think gambling might be a problem in their lives. Nearly half of men 40 (46.0%) think gambling might be a problem in their lifetime, and 47 (54%) think it might not. From what we see in women's responses, a total of 24 (39.3%) think it would be a problem in their lives, compared to 37 (60.7%) who think the opposite.

The last table in this section (see table 10) shows whether students have thought about asking for help from professionals because of their relationship to gambling. Of the men, 6 of them (6.7%) would ask for help from professionals if they thought they had a problem with gambling, while 83 (93.3%) have never considered it. Of the women, none of the 61 (100%) have thought of asking for help from professionals at any time.

This is the end of the results obtained according to the gender of the students, the following results are those related to the course to which they belonged.

Results by course

Regarding the frequency of gambling according to the course, in table 11 we observe how the secondary courses have very similar gambling percentages, the highest percentage being that of the fourth year, with a total of 12 students (36.4%). However, TAFAD students are considerably higher than secondary students, having the highest percentage of all courses with 24 students (70.6%).

Next, in table 12 we will see the results of sports betting by courses. Secondary education courses obtain percentages between 20 and 30 percent, but in this case the course with the highest percentage is the first year, with a total of 7 students (28%) who bet on sports. Here again, TAFAD students get a higher percentage than high school students, with a total of 24 students (70.6%) making sports betting, which is almost 45 percent more than high school students.

Results depending on whether or not they practice sport.

In this section, the results obtained in terms of gambling, depending on whether or not students practice sport (see table 13), indicate that students who practice sport have a slightly higher percentage than those who do not practice sport. The number of students who bet and do sport is 55 (47%) of the total 117 who do sport. On the other hand, we have 10 students (30.3%) who do not play sports, but who do gamble, out of a total of 33 students.

Now, with regard to sports betting depending on whether or not they practice sport (see table 14) 45 students (38.5%) bet and do sport, for the 72 (61.5%) who do sport, but do not make sports bets. On the other hand, we have 8 students (24.2%) who do not do sport and do bet, and 25 (75.8%) who do not practice sport and do not bet. Therefore, students who do sport have a higher percentage of sports bet than those who do not do sport.

Results of the influence of gender, course and sport practice on adolescent behaviours

Relationship between gender and betting

As for the contingency table with gender data and gambling, we see that there are 53 men and 12 women who do bet, and 36 men and 49 women who do not. Once the Chi-Square test has been carried out, it is observed that there is a significant relationship (p<.001) between the gender of the students and their behaviour in relation to gambling.

As for the same analysis, but in this case relating gender and sports betting (see table 16), it is observed that there are 45 men who have ever made bets and 44 who have never done so. On the other hand, 8 women have made sports betting at some time, and 53 women have never done so. Once the Chi-Square test has been performed, it has been observed that it is significant (p<.001), so we can say that there is a significant relationship between the gender of the students and the fact of whether or not they make sports betting.

Relationship between course and betting

We will now comment on the tables related to the course and gambling. Firstly, in table 17, we see that 8 first-year students have ever gambled, 21 third-year students, 12 fourth-year students and 24 TAFAD students. Once the Chi-Square test has been carried out, it has been observed that its result is significant (p<.01), so we can say that there is a significant relationship between belonging to one course or another and gambling practice.

Now, we will see these results for sports betting (see table 18). We can see how we have 7 first-year students who have made sports bets, 15 third-year students, 7 fourth-year students and 24 TAFAD students. After the Chi-Square test it has been observed that it is significant (p<.001), so we can say that there is a significant relationship between the course to which the students belong and the fact of participating in sports betting.

Relationship between sport practice and betting

Finally, we have to consider the possible influence of the practice of physical activity or sport on the behaviour of gambling and sports betting. In the first place, as far as betting is concerned, in table 19 we see that there are 55 students who do practice some type of sport and gamble, while 62 men who do practice sport do not gamble. On the other hand, there are 10 students who do not practice sport and gamble, while 23 do not practice sport or gamble.The Chi-Square test shows a non-significant result (p>.05), therefore, we cannot say that there is a significant relationship between the fact that students practice sport and the fact that they gamble. Table19.Contingency table between sports practice and gambling

Next, we will comment on the results obtained from the relationship between practicing a sport and making sports betting. As we can see in table 20, there are 45 students who do practice sports and make sports bets, whereas 72 men who do practice sports do not make sports bets. On the other hand, we see that there are 8 students who do not practice sport and make sports bets, compared to 25 who do not practice sport and do not make bets. After having carried out the Chi-Square test, it has been observed that it is not significant (p>.05), so we can say that there is no significant relationship between students practicing or not practicing sport and the realization of sports betting.

Discussion

The results obtained in this study lead to the conclusion that a large percentage of men (88.8%) and women (62.3%) practice sport, and that these data are somewhat higher than those of the study carried out by the INE (2018), in which men practice sport 59.8% and women 47.5%, it is true that these results count the population from 15 years old and older, if we observe the results focusing on age groups, we see how they are more similar to those of our study. In this case, 88% of people between 15 and 19 years of age practice sports and 75% of those between 20 and 24 years of age.

On the other hand, in Mateu (2016) we observe how 73% of those surveyed have ever made sports bets or gambling, are higher frequencies than those obtained in our study, which only 59.6% of men and 19.7% of women have made gambling, and 50.6% of men and 13.1% of women have made sports bets at some time. Both in our study and in that of Sarabia et al. (2014b), there is a great difference between men and women, who represent a large part of the young gambling population, both in sports betting and in gambling. The results obtained in the study of Chóliz & Lamas (2017) show percentages similar to those of our study, being 45.6% of men who make sports bets, and only 8.1% of women.

As for the frequency of sports betting among adolescents, in Mateu (2016), 17.7% bet almost every day, 25.8% bet on a weekly frequency, and a large percentage of them, 40.3% bet sporadically. These results of the previous research, are higher than those obtained in this work, since as far as men are concerned, 2.2% frequent gambling almost every day, 6.5 only on weekends, and 33.7 did so sporadically. For their part, women also have lower percentages than in Mateu's study, in this work women frequently bet on sports betting only 3.3%, 9.8 sporadically, and the rest (86.9%) never frequent sports betting.

One of the results obtained in this work was that only 6.7% of men would ask for help from professionals, in case they believe that they had a problem with sports betting or gambling, is a data that catches the attention because the majority of those surveyed are minors, and that thinking at those ages about asking for help from professionals is something to keep in mind. Something similar occurs in the study conducted by Chóliz & Lamas (2017), in which 20.23% of women who gamble have problems with gambling, and 47.44% of men who do the same.

Finally, with regard to sports practice and sports betting and gambling, significant differences were observed (p<05) between young people who played some sport and those who did not (Mateu, 2016). However, in our study no significant relationship was found (p>.05), performing the chi-square test, between adolescents who practice or do not practice sport, and that these make sports bets or gamble.

Conclusions

The results show that there are 50% of adolescent men who bet or have bet on gambling or sports betting, while in women these values are 20% for gambling and 13% for sports betting. On the other hand, 15% of men bet more money than expected, where 5.6% of them have taken money that was not theirs to gamble, and also that 6.7% of men and 3.3% of women have borrowed money to gamble. 13.5% of men and 3.3% of women stated that they had argued about betting with relatives and/or friends. Finally, 46% of men consider that betting could be a problem, while 39.3% of women think the same. Despite this, no woman thinks she will need professional help, while 6.7% of men think they will consider it.

In course comparisons, it is confirmed that TAFAD students are the ones who bet the most on gambling, followed by third and fourth course, while, in sports betting, TAFAD is again the course that bets the most, but in this case followed by first year of secondary education.

In terms of sports practice, 47% of those who do sport bet on gambling, while among those who do not do sport that percentage is 30.3%. Regarding sports betting, those who do bet 38.5%, while those who do not practice sport bet 24.2%.

With regard to the influence of the variables of gender, course and sports practice on the different aspects analysed, it is observed that gender and the course to which the students belong do have a significant influence with respect to the gambling and sports betting behaviours carried out by adolescents, whereas the fact of practising sport or not does not show a significant influence on this behaviour.

Implications

After exposing the problem, and understanding that other addictions such as alcohol and tobacco have been taking steps such as banning advertising on television or sporting events, we think it is a matter of time before similar measures are taken to stop the dramatic rise of people, especially young people, who engage in this type of behaviour that can end in addiction problems. It is true that, in recent years, reference has been made to the concept of responsible gambling, in which an attempt is made to prevent and report on the consequences (Chóliz, 2013). But it is also true that there is still a great media exposure of this type of companies related to gambling and sports betting, so that the fact that teenagers see that in the stadium of their team a sponsor is one of these companies, that the shirt of their team shows the name and / or that the players themselves advertise these betting houses, are enough arguments that influence much more than the attempt to raise awareness that has been made.

Sidebar

Corresponding Author: ALGUACIL, MARIO, E-mail: [email protected]

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