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1. Introduction: from governance by algorithms to governance of algorithms
Algorithms are integrated in a growing number of the Internet-based applications that shape our daily lives and realities. These software intermediaries operate behind the scenes and influence a wide range of activities; the selection of online news via search engines and news aggregators, the consumption of music and video entertainment via recommender systems, the choice of services and products in online shops, the display of status messages on social online networks and algorithmic trading in stock exchange markets are the most prominent examples of this omnipresent trend. Latzer et al. (2015) distinguish nine groups of the Internet services that rely on algorithmic selection applications (Table I), and although their purpose (e.g. search, aggregation, prognosis, scoring) and their modes of operation differ in detail, all of these applications are characterized by a common basic functionality; they automatically select information elements and assign relevance to them.
The broad diffusion of algorithms in a growing number of domains is one of the reasons for intensified discussion of the "power of algorithms". This power can be illustrated, for instance, by the impact of recommendation systems on consumer choice in electronic commerce (Senecal and Nantel, 2004; Hinz and Eckert, 2010), the influence of Google rankings (Döpfner, 2014; Epstein and Robertson, 2013) and Facebook's News Feed on the news business (Bucher, 2012; Somaiya, 2014). The power of Google's and Facebook's algorithms serves as prominent example in a broader debate on the social and economic influence of software in general and algorithms in particular. According to Manovich (2013), "software takes command" by replacing a diverse array of physical, mechanical and electronic technologies that create, store, distribute and interact with cultural artifacts. Codes and algorithms increasingly have governing powers (Musiani, 2013; Pasquale, 2015; Gillespie, 2014), similar to regulations by law (Lessig, 1999). Increasing automation (Steiner, 2012) and the power of technology are discussed by researchers and journalists who focus on the role of code and algorithms as agents (Machill and Beiler, 2007), institutions (Napoli, 2013; Katzenbach, 2011), ideologies (Mager, 2012), gatekeepers (Jürgens et al. , 2011; Wallace and Dörr, 2015) and modes of intermediation (Ãguila-Obra et al. , 2007). An institutional perspective points to the enabling and restricting role of algorithms. The...