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HORROR IS THE EXPRESSION OF FEAR, SHOCK, AND REVULSION AT THE OPERAtion of an evil force in the world. The force, which is often identified as supernatural, finds expression in the real or imagined activities of such creatures as monsters, ghosts, vampires, zombies, werewolves, cannibals, witches, sadists, or serial murderers. In early modern Europe and colonial America (c. 1450-1750), and especially during the age of the Reformation (c. 1520-1660) the evil source of horror was invariably identified as the Devil or one of his many subordinate demons. The main manifestation of this demonic horror was the practice of witchcraft, which was believed to have involved the performance of a variety of heinous deeds, including cannibalistic infanticide. During the early modern period, demons were also believed to have invaded and taken possession of the bodies of thousands of Europeans, causing them to display frightening and shocking symptoms. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries these forms of demonic horror abated in the West, only to stage a revival in the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries, when accusations of witchcraft and reports of demonic possession increased dramatically. A related source of horror in both the early modern and modern periods has been the use of torture in witchcraft prosecutions and the violent treatment of demoniacs during exorcisms.
THE IMAGE OF THE DEVIL
Before 1400 the figure of the Devil rarely elicited fear, shock, or revulsion among Christians. This evil spirit, often known by his biblical name of Satan, was recognized as the foe of the Christian God, a cosmic prin- ciple of evil, and a source of frequent temptation, but neither his appearance nor his alleged activities evoked horror. The image of the Devil usually incorporated features of pagan fertility gods, such as the Greek god Pan or the Celtic god Cernunnos. In medieval literature the Devil, the great trickster, was sometimes described in almost comical terms. What is more, the Devil was viewed as God's instrument and therefore could only act with permission of the deity. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, educated ritual magicians often summoned demons to assist them in their efforts to gain money or power, claiming that they could outwit the demons they had conjured and force them to do their bidding. In...