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ABSTRACT. This paper proposes that managers add an attention to virtues and vices of human character as a full complement to moral reasoning according to a deontological focus on obligations to act and a teleological focus on consequences (a balanced tripartite approach). Even if the criticisms of virtue ethics cloud its use as a mononomic normative theory of justification, they do not refute the substantial benefits of applying a human character perspective -- when done so in conjunction with also-imperfect act-oriented perspectives. An interactive tripartite approach is superior for meeting the complex requirements of an applied ethic. To illustrate how deficiencies of a "strong" virtue ethics formulation can be overcome by a balanced tripartite approach, this paper compares normative leadership paradigms (each based on a combination of virtue, deontology, or consequentialist perspectives) and the dangers inherent in each. The preferred paradigm is servant leadership, grounded in a tripartite ethic. Effective application
of such an ethics approach in contemporary organizations requires further empirical research to develop a greater understanding of the moral language actually used. Meeting this challenge will allow academics better to assist practicing managers lead moral development and moral reasoning efforts.
KEY WORDS: act-oriented theories, character, ethical manager, leadership, normal language, servant leadership, tripartite ethics, vice, virtue, virtue ethics
Introduction
What is the appropriate role for an ethic of virtues in managers' moral development and moral reasoning? An ethic of virtues (and vices) emphasizes the process of personal moral character development. Donaldson and Werhane (1999) note that some philosophers are reluctant to accept fully the "human nature" approach, believing that consequentialism and deontology exhaust all possible modes of ethical reasoning.
On the other hand, virtue ethics proponents often imply that the personal character perspective is more fundamental than act-oriented theories, favoring a "strong" view of virtue ethics. In An Introduction to Business Ethics (1996), Jackson argues that, of the three basic approaches, only a virtues-based approach is able to make sense of the importance of morality and thus good practice. In A Primer of Modern Virtue Ethics (1995, p. 1), Duncan states his objective of beginning a full-scale project to reconstruct morality as a whole on the basis of an ethics of the virtues so as to present a credible alternative...