1. Introduction
Value creation in the business-to-business (B2B) context has recently changed, becoming more digital [1,2]. The advent of COVID-19 changed B2B sales and helped jump-start the digitization process. B2B companies consider digital interactions more crucial to their customers than traditional sales interactions [3]. In addition, the demand for self-service in B2B has increased, elucidating the importance of the digital presence of vendors [3]. Sales communication has shifted from oral to written, which needs to be delivered online clearly and persuasively. Therefore, digitization increases the demand for product descriptions in the local language. The Norwegian B2B market within retail comprises more than one hundred vendors, where at least twenty vendors operate within the bicycle industry [4]. Most available brands are international, where the original product descriptions are available in English. There is a need for local translations, and these translations are either outsourced or performed manually by online tools such as Google. However, these product descriptions include bicycle-specific terminologies, which are challenging for online translators. Thus, local companies need an accurate and automatic translation tool.
Machine translation (MT) is a sub-field of Natural Language Processing (NLP) [5]. Recent developments in the field of NLP have led to the creation of several language models that are excellent at translating generic text, thus increasing the performance of MT to a level comparable to that of professional human translators in news translation [6]. However, its performance on domain-specific terminology needs some improvement [7]. A domain-specific term relates to the rare-word problem in MT, where out-of-vocabulary words are tokenized as unk [8]. This problem is resolved by identifying out-of-vocabulary words and translating them in a post-processing step [9]. Motivated by this approach, this study focused on creating a tool to identify bicycle-related words and then translate these words separately from the rest of the sentences. However, our method differs because several words in bicycle terminology are not out-of-vocabulary words, but they just happen to have different meanings. There are relatively few unique words in bicycle terminology [10]. Nonetheless, incorrect translations may produce a completely different context. For example, as shown in Figure 1, a bicycle wheel consists of a rim, hub, spokes, and nipples. Machine translation algorithms may classify spoke as a verb and not a noun or nipple as a body part instead of a nut connecting the spoke to the rim. Thus, we investigated methods to increase the accuracy of the machine translation of product descriptions in the domain of the bicycle industry by adapting neural machine translation (NMT) approaches from other sectors with similar word adoption problems. Due to a lack of publicly available datasets for training the NMT model to translate product descriptions related to the bicycle industry from English to Norwegian, we created one for our problem. Finally, we evaluated the model performance and compared it with that of Google Translate.
2. Related Work
NLP is how a computer understands natural language. The language text analysis is performed by splitting the text into tokens (tokenization), such as words, phrases, or sentences [11]. The task of domain-specific machine translation is composed of several sub-tasks, including a syntactic process that deals with the structure of sentences and a semantic process that deals with the meaning of sentences [11]. The semantic process is the most challenging due to the complexity of understanding context. A word-by-word translation is problematic without context knowledge. In the bicycle industry, a spoke is a rod connecting the hub and the rim, but spoke could also refer to a verb. In this section, we review the literature to understand the state of the art. The task of creating a domain-specific translation tool requires a domain-specific parallel corpus. However, creating a domain-specific parallel corpus is complex. Bago et al. [12] presented an overview of a two-year-long completed project of providing resources in Irish, Norwegian, Croatian, and Icelandic for purposes of language engineering (PRINCIPLE). The project helped develop a machine translation system to translate EU law into Norwegian. The recent development of machine translation (MT) has led to the creation of several language models based on the transformer architecture, which is excellent at translating generic text. However, its performance for domain-specific terminologies is lower due to the lack of labeled data for the specific domain [7]. One approach to fine-tuning the machine translation model is customization through data [13]. In order to train the model for a specific domain, it will need annotated data from the target domain to learn from the relationships between words and thereby learn the domain-specific context. The language model architecture allows for fine-tuning, which makes it possible to apply transfer learning to the language model [14]. Castilho et al. [15] presented a study that leverages machine translation for product descriptions in e-commerce. The authors fine-tuned a model with a dataset of product listings in both English and German, which increased the quality of the MT models [15].
Machine translation has evolved from statistical-based to neural-network-based systems. Neural Machine Translation (NMT) [16] started to gain popularity in 2015 as a new approach to machine translation, with the goal of building an extensive neural network that reads a sentence as input and outputs the correct translation. NMT consists of two components: an encoder and a decoder. The encoder transforms the input sentence into a context vector representation using a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN). The decoder, on the other hand, predicts the next word given the context vector. However, the encoder–decoder approach has challenges with long sentences due to long context vectors, and the model must be trained using parallel corpora, which may not be available. A better solution was proposed by Bahdanau et al. [17], who extended the encoder–decoder by letting a model (soft-) search for a set of input words or their annotations computed by an encoder when generating each target word. Another revolution within machine translation was the use of an attention mechanism to make the models pay more attention to some words than others [18]. An important generalization of attention is the multi-head attention known as the transformer architecture, which was proposed by Vaswani et al. [18] and is shown in Figure 2. In 2018, Google launched a new language model called BERT based on the transformer architecture [19]. Due to its transformer architecture, it can be fine-tuned to specific tasks with high performance [19]. However, the BERT model is trained on an English corpus and performs best in English. Since BERT was released, several other versions have been developed for local languages, such as the Norwegian model NorBERT [20].
Fine-tuning a large language model requires a domain-specific adaptation [21,22]. Depending on the complexity of the domain, there are different approaches to tackling the domain adaption problem [23]. Recent research has combined tools and techniques in NLP to develop a custom Named-Entity Recognition (NER) tool to extract domain-specific entities from documents in the context of healthcare [24]. NER identifies named entities, such as a person, location, place, or thing, in a text [25]. Like transfer learning in computer vision [26], fine-tuning a language model for a specific task allows the NER model to be trained with an annotated corpus using a Python library called spaCy [24].
Inspired by the development in NER using spaCy, we exploited a similar approach to create a custom NER model for bicycle terminologies in this work. We explored transfer learning to improve the machine translation of bicycle-specific terms from English to Norwegian, including generic text. We note that the problem we are addressing might be related to a narrow topic; nevertheless, it covers all processes for the translation of domain-specific lingo to a low-resource language, i.e., creating the domain-specific dataset, building the language-translation model, and manually proofreading the sentences as a quality check, etc. For example, developing a language model for make-up/cosmetic products would involve gathering text from make-up magazines, identifying the domain-specific words, translating sentences to Norwegian/other languages, and then manually proofreading and editing to create a sentence-pair dataset. Then, the best-performing language model is fine-tuned for the specific language. We followed the same steps in our work.
3. Methodology
In this work, we aimed to investigate and develop solutions to improve the machine translation of bicycle parts and their terminologies. As mentioned in the previous sections, labeled data are the key to teaching a machine translation model a new domain. However, due to the lack of a public dataset of labeled data in the bicycle domain, we developed one in this work. We then used the dataset to train a language model for our specific domain translation. The following sections discuss the data generation process and the implementation of the translation model.
3.1. Dataset Generation
To our knowledge, there is no available dataset on cycling lingo. Thus, we decided to create a custom dataset and, by domain adaption, follow the process proposed by Tarcar et al. [24]. Figure 3 shows the workflow of the dataset creation process. First of all, we gathered a cycling-specific text corpus. Then, we created a cycling lingo dictionary from the text. The collected text corpus was annotated by identifying the cycling lingo location. The annotated dataset was then used to train a custom NER tool to identify cycling-specific words. The custom NER model was then used to tag cycling lingo as an entity, after which we translated these entities with a custom-made dictionary. This process allowed us to achieve the consistent translation of the cycling lingo. The dataset consists of sentences from online articles that are highly focused on specific bicycle parts, such as wheels, derailleurs, bottom brackets, brakes, etc. There are 1000 sentence pairs with 1298 identified cycling words, 227 of which are unique words that are difficult to translate by Google. Additionally, to allow the language model to translate generic text from English to Norwegian, we added the same 54,666-generic-word vocabulary employed in [27]. Table 1 highlights the components of the dataset and summarizes their sizes, while Figure 4 shows the most frequent cycling words identified in the dataset. A dataset containing between 1000 and 3000 sentence pairs has been shown to be effective in fine-tuning language models [28,29]. Thus, in our case, because bicycle-related words are limited, using 1000 sentence pairs is enough to achieve our desired results. The sentence pairs were translated manually by a native Norwegian speaker and industry expert in the bicycle domain with ten years of professional experience.
The data collection process consists of two parts, one for the cycling-related corpus and the other for our custom NER tool, which needs annotated data from the cycling lingo context to learn how to detect cycling lingo as an entity. We gathered the cycling-related corpus by scraping several online sources, including
Annotating single words from the lingo dictionary was straightforward; however, several words in cycling lingo consist of more than one word separated by space, such as bottom bracket, brake lever, and inner tube. To capture the different forms of a word, for example, the plural, we converted the word to its lemma before matching. We used the Python library “re” and its function “finditter” to find all matches of a word in the sentence to the lingo list. Furthermore, we identified the location of a word within a sentence by using the start function of “finditter”. The position of the word was captured by adding the start index of the word in the sentence together with the length of the word, which together pin-points the end of the word. Figure 5 shows examples of the annotated sentences generated by the proposed data generation process. For each sentence, we identify the cycling lingo and its position in the sentence.
3.2. Implementation of the Language-Translation Tool
The implementation of the proposed translation tool consists of three parts. Firstly, we trained a custom NER model, and afterward, we learned an NMT model for the language-translation process. Lastly, we developed a web application of the developed translation tool to detect cycling-specific terminology and translate it accordingly using the spaCy, Dash, and Transformers libraries. The following sections discuss the implementation process of the various parts of the tool.
3.2.1. Custom NER Model
To train our custom NER model, we used the generated dataset discussed in Section 3.1. Because some cycling lingo words do not have ambiguous meanings and can be translated correctly by most language models, we used a dataset with sentences from bicycle repair articles collected from
3.2.2. Neural Machine Translation (NMT) Model
The Norwegian translation of bicycle terminologies can be accomplished in two ways. The first way is to translate the identified cycling lingo word by word and then employ an MT model to translate the rest of the sentences. This process allows complete control and the consistent translation of ambiguous words. In addition, this approach is fast, as it avoids translating every sentence from scratch. However, the word-by-word translation approach has its challenges. For example, by masking the words for translation, the model loses information and produces outputs that might be grammatically inaccurate. On the other hand, we obtain a more grammatically correct translation by training the language model with a domain-specific sentence-pair dataset. In this work, we employed the trained custom NER model discussed in Section 3.2.1 to create such a sentence-pair dataset. Figure 6 illustrates the steps to generate the sentence-pair dataset using our custom NER. We focused on ambiguous words in cycling terms, such as hub, spoke, nipple, housing, and bottom bracket. We translated one thousand sentences manually to create our sentence-pair dataset. We proofread and edited every sentence to obtain the best-quality translation. The dataset was then randomly shuffled and split into 80% training, 10% validation, and 10% test sets for learning the NMT model. There are very few models that are able to translate text from English to Norwegian that we could adapt for our work. These include the Marian translation model (MarianMT) [27] and Many-to-Many (M2M) multilingual translation model developed by Facebook researchers [30]. The MarianMT model is known to perform well in translating generic texts from English to Norwegian. It uses the transformer architecture shown in Figure 2, which has six decoder layers and six encoder layers in the encoder and decoder, respectively, with sixteen attention heads. The model is pre-trained with the OPUS corpora, consisting of over 74 million English and Norwegian sentence pairs [31]. Other popular multi-language models, such as Multilingual Denoising Pre-training for Neural Machine Translation (mBART) [32], do not cover Norwegian. In addition, the Multilingual Text-to-Text Transfer Transformer (MT5) from Google [33] is not pre-trained on a Norwegian corpus, so it would require retraining from scratch for our translations. To develop our NMT model, we performed a preliminary selection test using M2M and MarianMT to translate some of the texts in our dataset. MarianMT outperformed the M2M model with an average SacreBleu score of 41.511 against the 24.497 obtained by the M2M model. The pre-trained MarianMT model performed well on generic text but needed domain-specific terminology improvement to apply to our purposes. Additionally, we chose to use the pre-trained model because it would reduce computation costs by allowing us to use a state-of-the-art model without having to train it from scratch [34]. Thus, we fine-tuned it using our custom sentence-pair dataset. To fine-tune the MarianMt model, we followed the same fine-tuning procedure in the Transformers library using the default training parameters accordingly (
3.2.3. Web Application for Language Translation
One of the main objectives of our research was to create a prototype software tool to translate text, including bicycle-specific terminology, from English to Norwegian. So far, we have developed our dataset to train a custom NER model, then used this model to create a sentence-pair dataset, and finally fine-tuned a language model on our custom dataset. To tie all parts together, we built a user-friendly web application of the language-translation tool using the Python Dash library, which is built on top of the Flask library. The web application has an input text field, a translation button, and an output text field. The application loads our trained NMT model and our custom NER model. The user can input English text, and the application will return the detected cycling lingo words, including a Norwegian translation. Figure 7 shows the user interface of the developed web application for our proposed machine translation of bicycle-specific terminology from English to Norwegian, including generic. The complete code for the developed language models is available at our GitHub repository (
4. Evaluation and Discussion
4.1. Evaluation Setup
To facilitate the efficient development and evaluation of our proposed method, we used an open-source machine learning framework library produced by Meta AI known as PyTorch. We conducted our experiments on a consumer-graded personal computer with RTX3060ti 8 GB GPU and a Windows 11 operating system. We performed both qualitative and quantitative evaluations of the performance of our proposed models, i.e., the custom NER model and the NMT model. We evaluated the custom NER model quantitatively using the built-in evaluation metrics from the spaCy library, which calculates the F1 score of the model output on the test set. Similarly, we assessed the performance of the NMT model using the SacreBleu score, a machine translation evaluation method that is language-independent and correlates highly with human evaluation [35]. We compared the SacreBleu scores for the proposed NMT model with those obtained using the classic Google Translate app.
4.2. Evaluation of Custom NER Model
Figure 8 shows a sample of the qualitative outputs of the custom NER model. The NER model correctly identified all the cycling lingo entities in the English texts, including capturing noun chunk entities such as “shifter cable” and “rear derailleur”, which are challenging to detect because they consist of two tokens. Thanks to the quality of the generated dataset and the learned custom NER model, the accurate detection of cycling lingo entities in a sentence allows direct word-by-word translation using a custom dictionary. We also evaluated the performance of the custom NER model by computing the F1 score of its outputs using the spaCy library. Our custom NER model achieved, on average, an F1 score of 88.91% in detecting the cycling lingo words in the test set.
4.3. Evaluation of the NMT Model
To evaluate the trained NMT model, we used a test set that consists of 100 sentences manually translated by domain experts who are also Norwegian native speakers. The goal is to use our trained NMT model to translate the sentences as closely as possible to human translation. Figure 9 shows a screenshot of a sample of the qualitative output of our trained NMT model. The model correctly translated all English texts presented to it. We also evaluated the trained NMT model quantitatively by computing the SacreBleu score of its translation. SacreBleu tokenizes the translated sentences and counts matching words against the manually translated test set to calculate the scores. Our trained NMT model achieved, on average, a SacreBleu score of 45.099 on the test set.
We compared the performance of the proposed method with the classic Google Translate. Figure 10 shows the SacreBleu scores for both approaches on some test samples. In general, our model outperformed Google Translate on the entire test set, with an average SacreBleu score of 45.099 against 36.615 for Google Translate. Figure 11 shows the outputs of Google Translate and our proposed method on the same bicycle-related article from the internet. Google Translate translated the text shown in Figure 11-top as Den brukes også når du installerer en ny eiker. Hver eike er festet til hjul felgen med en eike nippel, som kan snus for å enten stramme eller løsne eikens spenning. (see Figure 11-bottom left). In contrast, our proposed model translated the text as Det brukes også når du installerer en ny eike. Hver eike er festet til hjul felgen med en eike nippel, som kan dreies for enten å stramme eller løsne eikens spenning. (see Figure 11-bottom right). Notably, Norwegian grammar is better with our model than with the Google Translate app. The proposed NMT model also translates “turned” to “dreies”, which is more appropriate in this context than Google’s translation of “snus”.
5. Conclusions
In this study, we developed a tool to translate domain-specific text for the bicycle industry from English to Norwegian. Firstly, with the help of domain experts in the bicycle industry and Norwegian native speakers, we created a custom dataset for our work. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first domain-specific dataset for product descriptions related to the bicycle industry in Norwegian. The dataset also contains sentence-pair sets translated manually by an industry expert. Then, we created a custom NER model that identifies bicycle-specific words and labels them as a cycling lingo entity. We trained an NMT model using a sentence-pair dataset. The learned NMT model was then used to translate bicycle-related English texts. Our model outperformed Google Translate on our test set, with an average SacreBleu score of 45.099 against 36.615 for Google Translate. Our translation tool can translate bicycle-specific text from English to Norwegian with higher performance than Google Translate. The source code, generated dataset, and web application have been made available to the public for research purposes.
Notably, our work is limited to bicycle terminology of fixed, repair, and maintenance parts. This is because we focused mainly on challenging bicycling words that are difficult for the classic Google Translate app. Thus, due to the specific domain vocabulary used during the development of our language model, the model might not be directly applicable for translating text containing product or service terminologies in other domains different from the one it was trained for. However, the process of how the models were built can be applied to other domains as well. Future work could include the creation of a more comprehensive sentence-pair dataset to increase the performance and applicability of the model to other areas of human endeavors. A possible scenario is to liaise with native Norwegian speakers and industry experts in some sectors to help manually translate product and service texts from English to Norwegian, thus creating a comprehensive sentence-pair database to further fine-tune the NMT model. Many companies do already have all sentence pairs from previous translations, but they are not used; instead, they repeat the translations over and over again, which is cumbersome and costly.
D.H. carried out this research as part of his bachelor’s degree project. I.A.L. was involved in planning and supervising the work and drafting and reviewing the manuscript. The methodology, analysis, and discussion were conducted by all participants. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The source codes and the generated datasets have been made available to the public on the authors Github repository (
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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![View Image - Figure 1. Bicycle parts and their naming conventions [10].](https://media.proquest.com/media/hms/THUM/2/PCtnR?_a=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&_s=k2u8h6h%2BTgXqyzyUL3e2Hm%2FLViI%3D "View Image - Figure 1. Bicycle parts and their naming conventions [10].")
![View Image - Figure 2. The transformer language model architecture [18].](https://media.proquest.com/media/hms/THUM/6/PCtnR?_a=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&_s=oJlJJF%2FZKWiq0RXOFB5kuQutAXI%3D "View Image - Figure 2. The transformer language model architecture [18].")
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. The steps for creating a sentence-pair dataset used for learning the NMT model.
Enlarge this image.Figure 7. The user interface of the proposed web application (cycLingo Translator) using custom NER detection and NMT language translation.
Enlarge this image.Figure 8. Sample qualitative results of the proposed custom NER model. It is was able to detect all cycLingo entities (see the purple color boxes) in the English texts, including capturing noun chunk entities such as “shifter cable” and “rear derailleur”, which are challenging.
Enlarge this image.Figure 9. Sample qualitative result of the proposed custom NMT model. The text in the purple color boxes are the cycLingo entities detected in the text. It was able to accurately translate English texts including domain-specific bicycle terms to Norwegian.
Enlarge this image.Figure 10. Comparison of the SacreBleu scores for both Google Translate and our trained NMT models.
Enlarge this image.Figure 11. Comparison of the translation of the https://www.bicycling.com/repair/a35937378/how-to-use-a-spoke-wrench/ (accessed 8 April 2023) article using Google Translate app and our proposed method. The text in the purple color boxes are the cycLingo entities detected in the text by our proposed model before translating the entire text.
Summary of the dataset collected and used in our work.
| Sentence Pairs | Generic-Word Vocabulary | Bicycle-Part Vocabulary |
|---|---|---|
| 1000 | 54,666 | 1298 |
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