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Abstract
Socialization can take place through participation in sports since sports provide a microcosm for living and society. The structure of social relations in sports influences the participants' development of social skills. Researchers have strived to answer whether sports provides a positive outlet for, or teaches and reinforces, aggression. This paper reviews and extends research on aggression and sportsmanship, examines how aggression is developed, and makes recommendations.
I. Introduction
Human beings cannot live a fulfilling life in isolation, and can have more effective and healthy lives through association with others. This means that human beings must somehow learn how to live together. Socialization can take place through participation in sports since sports provide learning environments where participants have the opportunity to learn competition, cooperation, role-playing and discipline regarding rules, regulations, and goals (Bloom & Smith, 1996). In this sense, sports can be seen as a laboratory of human experience. The structure of social relations in organized sports can give participants experience in various roles and group interaction, and contribute to the development of social characteristics that integrate them into existing larger social structures.
Unfortunately, a "win-at-all-costs" philosophy has often led to unethical and aggressive behaviors, impacting negatively and destructively on the development and well being of young athletes and of society at large. Researchers (see, e.g., Arms, Russell, & Sandilands, 1979; Bredemeier, Weiss, Shields, & Cooper, 1986; Ewing, Gano-Overway, Branta, & Seefeldt, 2002; Guivernau & Duda, 2002; Terry & Jackson, 1985) have strived to answer whether sports provides a positive outlet for an instinctive drive of aggression or whether sport teaches and reinforces aggression through the highly competitive nature of many sport settings. The purpose of the present paper is to review and extend past theories and perspectives on aggression and sportsmanship, to explore how aggression is developed and to make recommendations. For this purpose, three theories that address aggression are examined: 1) instinct theory, 2) frustration-aggression hypothesis, and 3) social learning theory. The impact of significant others such as coaches, peers and parents on young athletes' aggression and moral reasoning will be examined, and possible recommendations will be suggested based upon social learning theory.
II. Theoretical Background
Proponents of instinct theory such as Freudians argue that aggression is instinctive, and that vigorous...