Content area
Full Text
Introduction
Since the 1980s, members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) have been experiencing fast economic development and attracted large numbers of migrant workers from neighbouring countries during the early stages of their development transition (Athukorala, 2006). ASEAN recognises the importance of job creation and developing the quality of its workforce.
In January 2007, ASEAN adopted the Declaration on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers (DPPMW) (Mahidol Migration Centre, 2011). Despite the declaration and the subsequent convention that was held a decade later, illegal migration continues to occur. This is mainly due to difficulties faced by migrant workers in getting access to regular forms of safe migration. Even though workers can find regular channels, some issues arise, such as huge migration fees or long and complicated bureaucratic procedures to get work permits and visas. Therefore, migrant workers find it easier to go through recruitment agencies, who will send them instantly. Migrant workers who utilise recruitment agencies and agents face numerous problems, such as physical violence, verbal abuse, human trafficking, gender-based exploitation, low or no wages, debt traps, long working hours, safety and health issues as well as criminalisation.
ASEAN is experiencing rising levels of intraregional migration within member countries due to supply and demand factors. Incentives from economic and non-economic sectors shape the supply side of international migration. People choose to migrate if living abroad is greater than staying in their home countries and if it will fulfil their wants (Tuccio, 2017). The following factors will also determine the course of development in ASEAN:
Diverse nature of economic and social development within countries in the region (determined by wage differences and social economic openness associated with globalisation and the role of family members);
Demographic contrast amongst the people of ASEAN countries with a young and growing labour force and a rising population of youth that builds up pressure for job creation, therefore affecting unemployment and underemployment (e.g: Indonesia). This is contrary to ASEAN countries with an ageing population and a declining birth rate, influencing the supply and demand of labour (e.g. Malaysia and Singapore).
Disparities in GDP per capita amongst ASEAN members. For example, Malaysia's GDP per capita, being approximately three and a half times higher than in Indonesia,...