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Interview and questionnaire data obtained from 73 leaders of nonprofit environmentalist and for-profit environmental product and service organizations showed that these leaders' personal values were more ecocentric, open to change, and self transcendent than those of managers in other types of organizations. These leaders also acted as "master managers," performing both transformational and transactional leadership behaviors. As hypothesized, nonprofit environmentalist organizations were highly receptive contexts for transformational leadership, whereas for-profit environmental organizations were at least moderately receptive in this regard. We used these findings to develop a preliminary model of environmental leadership.
In the late 1960s, the second wave of the environmental movement in North America was launched. Inspired by Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring and the first observance of Earth Day, environmental advocacy organizations of all varieties proliferated, including the Environmental Defense Fund, an environmental law and policy organization; Earth First, an action/guerrilla organization; the World Wildlife Fund, an advocacy/educational organization; and a plethora of grassroots organizations formed to save endangered species, protect air, water, and wetlands, foster organic farming and recycling, restore polluted industrial sites, and promote alternative energy. This second wave of environmental activism also involved the revitalization of mainstream environmental organizations (one example being the Sierra Club) founded during the 19th century's resource conservation and wilderness protection movement-the first wave of the North American environmental movement (Gottlieb, 1993; Pepper, 1996).
Some of these environmental organizations were private, nonprofit advocacy entities whose major purpose was to lobby legislative bodies on behalf of their particular environmental causes. Others were educational organizations whose goal was to inform the public about environmental issues and train people about sound environmental practices. And some were governmental agencies funded by federal, state or provincial, or local governments, with mandates to establish environmental policy, monitor environmental conditions, educate the public about conservation, and enforce environmental regulations.
In the past 20 years, this resurgence of environmentalism has also included a proliferation of forprofit entrepreneurial organizations (Elkington & Burke, 1989; Hendrickson & Tuttle, 1997; Hunter & Starik, 1995; Shrivastava, 1996; Stead & Stead, 1996). Market interests clearly saw the benefits of capitalizing on environmentalism as a commodity. Construction companies that specialized in environmentally sound buildings, laboratories that measured pollutants, manufacturers of pollution measurement instruments or recycling equipment, businesses that used...