LEGIO XVI FLAVIA FIRMA FROM ITS CREATION TO THE EARLY YEARS OF HADRIAN

Abstract

The present paper tackles some disputed issues concerning the history of Legio XVI Flavia. The first issue in dispute is as to where was stationed the legion immediately upon its creation and when it became a part of the military garrison of Cappadocia. The second question that arises is about its transfer from Satala, in Cappadocia, to Samosata, in Syria. Using different literary, epigraphical and archaeological evidence concerning the overall movement of the roman Eastern legions from Vespasian to Hadrian we've reached the conclusion that Legio XVI Flavia Firma was stationed between 75-119 AD in Cappadocia, and transferred after to Samosata. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Headnote

Abstract: The present paper tackles some disputed issues concerning the history of Legio XVI Flavia. The first issue in dispute is as to where was stationed the legion immediately upon its creation and when it became a part of the military garrison of Cappadocia. The second question that arises is about its transfer from Satala, in Cappadocia, to Samosata, in Syria. Using different literary, epigraphical and archaeological evidence concerning the overall movement of the roman Eastern legions from Vespasian to Hadrian we've reached the conclusion that Legio XVI Flavia Firma was stationed between 75-119 AD in Cappadocia, and transferred after to Samosata.

keywords: Gerasa, legio XVI Flavia Firma, Legio VI Ferrata, Samosata, Satala, vexillatio.

E. Ritterling assumed that in 70 AD, in Syria there were three legions: III Gallica, VI Ferrata and IIII Scythica1. According to Flavius Josephus, Legio X Fretensis remained in Jerusalem2, and Legio XII Fulminata was transferred from Raphaneae to Melitene in Cappadocia3. Also, E. Ritterling claimed that Legio XVI Flavia Firma was created in 70 AD and established to Satala, so that year Cappadocia became an imperial province of consular rank4.

This thesis is no longer considered valid by most researchers, as there are many arguments that disputes it5. An inscription engraved on a milestone found near Antioch, dating from 75 AD, shows that Legio XVI Flavia Firma was still in Syria: [pe]r militum legionum (quattuor) [III Gal]l(icae), IV Scyt(hicae), VI Ferr(atae), XVI Fl(aviae) [ite]m cohortium (viginti) [item?] Antiochensium ....6 The epigraph seems to refute the information existing in the work of Suetonius that Vespasianus transferred two legions in Cappadocia and appointed a governor of consular rank in this new province7. It is true that there is no information as to where this legion was stationed in the period 75-120 AD. T. B. Mitford assumed that the legion participated in 76 AD, together with Legio XII Fulminata to the road construction connecting Melitene and Satala1.

However, most authors agree on the presence of the legion in Cappadocia during this period, not excluding the possibility of its transfer from Syria after year 75 AD2. The road from Satala to Melitene was marked by milestones since 76 AD, which leads to the logical conclusion of the existence of the two legions in Cappadocia during this period3.

The first inscription from Satala dates not earlier than the second century AD4, but recent archaeological explorations have revealed the remains of a legionary fort dating from the reign of Vespasian5.

According to Cassius Dio, Trajan visited Satala at the beginning of the war, where Anchialos, king of the Machelons and Heniochi paid homage and swore allegiance to him6. The position of this fort on the emperor's itinerary and the role it played in organizing the ceremony meant to impress the barbarian dynast indicates that Satala was a large fort, able to garrison a whole legion.

The reorganization of Cappadocia as a province of consular rank under Vespasianus has to be related to the escalation of tensions between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Kingdom7. The absence of substantial forces in Asia Minor made the eastern flank of the roman military vulnerable. Furthermore, this reorganization has to be related to the annexation of Commagene, Armenia Minor8 and of the small kingdoms of Emessa and Chalkidike, the last two falling under the authority of the governor of Syria.

An additional argument, though not infallible, for the presence of two legions in Cappadocia thesis is the number of auxiliary troops. According to statements of the great historian Tacitus, the number of auxiliary troops of a province were equal to those of its legions9. Thus, according to information provided by Flavius Arrianus ,in Cappadocia stationed 4 alae and 10 cohortes, while as many as other five or six cohorts are known based on epigraphic documents10.

The legion participated undoubtedly to the parthian war of Trajan11. We consider that no later than 118/119 AD, the legion was transferred to Samosata, in Syria12, being replaced at Satala by the legio XV Apollinaris, coming from Egypt. Its presence is confirmed at Samosata in the mid second century AD, by Ptolemaios, in his work Geographia1. The name of the legion also appears in an inscription from Rome listing the names of Roman in order of their geographical settlement as it follows: XII Fulminata, XV Apollinaris, III Gallica, IIII Scythica, XVI Flavia Firma2.

A cippus and stamped tiles belonging to legio XVI Flavia Firma legion were found at Samosata3. However, these materials can't be dated accurately and do not provide information on the date of the legion's transfer to Samosata.

But the most conclusive evidence concerning the presence of the legio XVI Flavia Firma in Syria is a badly mutilated inscription found at Gerasa, dating from the early years of Hadrian's reign, whose reading caused a fierce dispute among researchers. This is an honorary inscription belonging to the legion VI Ferrata. The city came under Roman control during Pompey's campaign in the East and placed directly under the the government of the legate of Syria4. Later, at an unknown date, Gerasa and other cities that formed the Decapolis came under the authority of the governor of Arabia 5. The reasons for this decision are unknown6. The inscription was first published by A. H. M. Jones in 19287 and revised ten years later by C. B. Welles with the following reading8:

pr]aef(ecto) coh

trib(uno) mil(itum) leg(ionis) X] piae fideli[s

proc(uratori) provinc(iae)] Arabiae

milites ?] leg(ionis) VI Ferr(atae)

imp(eratore) Caes(are) T]raiano Hadriano

Aug(usto) trib(unicia) pot(estate) XI]V III co(n)s(ule)

Fece]runt ex AVN

The inscription was reviewed in 1980 by D.L. Kennedy, who offered a new reading:

..U]lpiae fideli...

Provinciae ?] Arabiae

vexill(ationis)] leg. VI Ferr(atae)

imp(eratore) Caes(are) T]raiano Hadriano

Aug(usto) trib. pote]st. III cos [III]

...]runt ex Alex[andria]9

A different interpretation was offered by H. M. Cotton, who remarked, quite rightly, that the readings and interpretation of the inscription don't bring enough solid evidence for assuming the presence of the entire legion VI Ferrata in Arabia during the reign of Hadrian1. The israeli researcher has righteously refuted Welles' erroneous assumption that the legion VI Ferrata would have dedicated the inscription to the procurator of the province. H. M. Cotton also noted that an equestrian officer who served only in the first two militia could not accede to the higher position of procurator of Judea, of centenarian rank. The israelian author has proposed, instead, a new variant of restoring the text of the inscription, assuming that is about a senatorial cursus honorum rather than of an equestrian one, and that is dedicated to the governor who was also the legate of the legion. H. M. Cotton rejected the reading of the first line of the inscription offered by D. L. Kennedy U]lpiae fideli[-] considered by her very unlikely. Ms. Cotton proposed a new reading - piae fideli[s - that, in her opinion, is the epithet of a legion. This epithet had been given to the legions I Adiutrix, I Minerva, II Adiutrix, VII Claudia, XI Claudia, XIII Gemina and XXII Primigenia. However, she admitted Kennedy's reading of the fifth line of the inscription concerning the third tribunician of Hadrian, dated between 10/12/118-9/12/119 AD. We assume this reading, that, in our opinion, is correct. Cotton's also accepted Kennedy's suggestion for the the last line of the inscription [-]runt ex Alex[-], that she restored [redie] runt ex Alex [andria]. The epigraph was dedicated, according to the israeli researcher, to M. Paccius Corredius Quintus Gallus Gargilius Antiquus Silvanus, successor of the first governor of the province, C. Claudius Severus2. He was created a consul suffectus in 119 AD3, that might be, if the identification is correct, a terminus ante quem for the dating of the inscription.

[Q. Coredio Q. F. Quir.]

[Gallo Gargilio Antiquo]

[ - - - - - -]

[- - - - - -]

[- - - - - -]

[..........legato leg.]

[..........a]e piae fideli[s. legato Aug.]

[pr. pr. provinciae] Arabiae, [cos. designat.]

[milites] leg. VI Ferr[at[(ae)]

[qui Imp. Caesar T]raiano Hadriano [Aug.]

[tribunic. pote]st. III cos. [III]

[feliciter redie]runt ex Alex[andria]

[ob merita]

According to the israeli researcher, this text reconstruction provides the main evidence for the participation of legio VI Ferrata to the operations to suppress the Jewish revolt from Egypt and of its transfer to Arabia at a date prior to 119 AD4. Legio VI Ferrata replaced legio III Cyrenaica perhaps when the latter set offfor the Parthian War. This did not happen before the winter of 114/115 AD, when legio VI Ferrata is known to have been in Armenia, near Atropatene, under the command of C. Bruttius Praesens1. In 116 AD, one vexillatio of the legion is attested at Artaxata in Armenia2. We know, however, that operations in Egypt and Cyrenaica were over before Trajan's death that occurred in August 117 AD. Gavius Fronto, praefectus castrorum the of the legion XV Apollinaris was commissioned by Trajan to establish a colony of veterans in Cyrene, in order to repopulate Cyrenaica, that had been strongly affected by the war3. We also know that the general sent against the rebels, Q. Marcius Turbo Fronto Publicius Severus, was not prefect of Egypt, but had exercised an independent command4. Among the troops that fought under his command might have been vexillations from XII Fulminata and XVI Flavia Firma5, at least one vexillation from VI Ferrata and legio III Cyrenaica6, the latter being attested in 119 AD alongside XXII Deiotariana at Nikopolis near Alexandria7.

The American scholar E. L. Wheeler has shown that, starting probably with 106, legio XV Apollinaris leftCarnuntum for Nikopolis in Egypt8, where it replaced legio III Cyrenaica, the latter being settled at Bostra, in the newly created province of Arabia9. There is no conclusive evidence for the participation of the legions XV Apollinaris and XXII Deiotariana in the Parthian offensive. Two coins, one of Arados, and a Domitianic issue thought to come from Neapolis in Samaria, both bearing the countermark of the XV Apollinaris (LXV) attests the presence of a legion's vexillatio in Phoenicia or Judaea between 115 - 117 AD10. Probably a vexillation of legio XV Apollinaris performed a logistical support mission for the troops operating against the insurgency in Judaea11.

In 115 AD, a Jewish revolt ignited in Cyrene then spread to Egypt in 116. A papyrus letter found at Hermoupolis evokes the defeat of a legion inflicted by the local rebels. The letter also mentions that the prefect of Egypt, Rutilius Lupus, was awaiting another legion (aÓllh legewn) to come to Memphis1. The identity of the defeated legion cannot be determined, but we assume that since legio XV Apollinaris participated in the operations against the Jewish rebels, this unit was expected to arrive in Memphis. Certainly, that legion was not legio III Cyrenaica, for this unit was a part of the expeditionary force led by Q. Marcius Turbo2.

The transfer of legio VI Ferrata to Arabia has to be related to departure of the legion XV Apollinaris from Egypt to Satala, where it replaced legio XVI Flavia Firma, that, in turn, was transferred to Samosata, in Syria. Most likely, legio XV Apollinaris was transferred to Satala in 118 AD or 119 AD at the latest3. It follows that the departure of the legion XVI Flavia Firma from Satala to Samosata took place at the same time. Legion VI Ferrata leftEgypt, where it participated to the repression of the Jewish revolt at the earliest in 117 AD, but not later than 119 AD, when the legions III Cyrenaica and XXII are attested again at Nikopolis.

We consider unfounded the reservation expressed by the french scholar P.-L. Gatier concerning the information contained in BGU 140 papyrus on the presence of the two legions in August 119 AD in the double camp located near Alexandria4. The argument raised by this historian, namely that the camp took the name of the legions who previously stationed there is untenable. We have no evidence to prove the camps were named according to the name of the legions that previously stationed there. It is inconceivable that 13 years after the legion III Cyrenaica leftEgypt for Arabia, the camp of Nikopolis still bore its name. Even if we accept the assumption that the legio III Cyrenaica was no longer in Egypt in August 119 AD, we have no reason to assume the same for legio XXII Deiotariana. Therefore, even if the Legio III Cyrenaica had not been not present at Nikopolis and had Legio XXII Deiotariana been in the camp, the hypothesis raised by P.-L. Gatier would have become a nonsense.

P.-L. Gatier also assumed that the above mentioned inscription from Gerasa would date from the short time period spent by emperor Hadrianus in this city and that the inscription would be a dedication to the prince made by his escorting soldiers. We consider this interpretation as speculative and unlikely, and moreover, impossible to demonstrate5. The French scholar also bluntly rejects that the following funerary inscription found at Bostra could stand as a prove for the presence legion in Arabia:

T. Flavius M. [f.] Col(lina) Marcianus, domo Philad(elphia), optio hast(ati) leg(ionis) VI Ferr(atae), Luculla mat(e)r et Fl(avia) L alla soror her(edes) eius.6

The objections raised by P.-L. Gatier with regard to the presence of the legion VI Ferrata in Arabia in the early years of Hadrian's reign is based on an analysis of the inscriptions from Bostra and Gerasa, made by M. A. Speidel in 19771. But Speidel's analysis turned to be obsolete in the light of new information emerging from an article published two years later. The german scholar stated that legio VI Ferrata remained in Syria until AD 117, when it is supposed to have been transferred to Judaea2. It turned to be, however, not later than 120 A D, legio II Traiana not legio VI Ferrata the unit that moved to Judaea3. Moreover, P.-L. Gatier keeps silence about an inscription engraved on a building block found near Amman, the capital of Jordan, mentioned by D. L. Kennedy:

VEXIL[...

LEG. V[...

[...?...4

As the british scholar had noted, after the V is a space of at least five letters. From the legions list whose serial number starts with V number, VI Victrix, VII Gemina, VIII Augusta and VIIII Hispana can be swiftly eliminated, for they were not involved in any mission in the East. The serious contenders are V Macedonica, VI Ferrata and VII Claudia p. f. The first is attested in Judaea by many inscriptions5, while the third is known to have taken part to Trajan's Parthian War6. Kennedy considered most probable that the inscription belongs to legio VI Ferrata, hypothesis that in our view is correct. Similar building inscriptions can be found all over Empire, says Kennedy, such as RIB 2180 from Auchendarvy on the vallum Antonini: vex(illatio)/leg(ionis) II [Aug(ustae) f(ecit)]. Kennedy proposed the following reconstruction: Vexil[latio]/leg(ionis) V[I Ferr(atae)]/[fecit]7.

P.-L. Gatier chose to reject the value of those documents trying to demonstrate that legion III Cyrenaica never leftArabia for another province. However, as the French epigraphist admits in his study8, the first irrefutable evidence for the presence of the legion III Cyrenaica in Arabia dates from the early years of Antoninus Pius' reign. We're talking about a series of coins dated between 140-144 AD9.

The conclusion of our study is there are enough convincing proves for the presence of the legio VI Ferrata in Arabia to say at least for the early years of Hadrian's reign. Following its departure from Raphaneae10, in 114 AD, and the establishment at Bostra, around 118/119 AD, in Syria remained only two legions: III Gallica and IIII Scythica. The transfer of the legion XV Apollinaris from Alexandria to Satala, in Cappadocia, in 118/119 AD led to the departure of the legion XVI Flavia Firma from this province to Samosata, in Syria. As a result, legio III Gallica was transferred from Samosata to Raphaneae1. The distribution of the eastern Roman legions in 119 AD can be seen in the table below:

Footnote

1 RE XII 1925, 1271 f.

2 Flavius Josephus, Bellum Iudaicum, 7, 1, 2; 3.

3 Ibidem, 7, 1, 3; Mitford 1980, 1186; DE IV, s. v. limes, 1317 f.

4 RE XII 1924, 1271-1272, 1765; R. Syme, CAH XI 1936, 140-41; with regard to Satala: Mitford 1980, 1187.

5 For bibliography, see Berchem, 190, n. 29.

6 Berchem, 191, n. 31. See n. 32, where the author considers that legio XVI Flavia Firma never stationed in Cappadocia but in Syria, where it replaced legio X Fretensis, which leftfor Judaea.

7 Suetonius, Vespasianus, 8, 4.

1 Mitford, 1183-84.

2 Keppie 1986, 421 f.; Reynolds-Beard-Roueche, 137; Isaac 1990, 50-51, who considers that the four legions were not involved in the the road construction in full strength, but only vexillations of them; Schwartz 1990, 9, n. 26.

3 Mitford 1974, 165-66; Mitford 1977, 507-9; Mitford 1980, 1186-92.

4 Mitford 1974, 165-66, n. 3 = AE 1971 465.

5 Hartmann 2004; Drahor-Berge- Kurtulmu 2004.

6 Cassius Dio 68, 19, 2.

7 Panegyricus, IX, 2; XIV, 1; XVI, 1; LVIII, 3; LXXXXIX, 3; ILS 8970; Dabrowa 1998, 64 f.

8 Flavius Iosephus, Bellum Iudaicum, 7, 7, 1; Suetonius, Vespasianus, 8; Mitchell 1993, 118; Gebhardt 2002, 43 f.; M. A. Speidel 2005, 85-100.

9 Tacitus, Annales, 4, 5, 6.

10 ÃEktacij kataÜ ¡Alanw½n, I-XIV; XVIII; idem, Periplus Ponti Euxini, 3; 9; Mitford 1980,

1189; AFRBA 1983, 16 f.

11 CIL X 1202.

12 Cassius 55, 24, 3; M. A. Speidel 2000, 330, n. 42; AE 1950 190.

1 Ptolemaios, V, 14, 18: Samo¿sata, legi¿wn Flaoui¿a.

2 CIL VI 3492 = ILS 2281.

3 IGLS I 53, 57 = CIL III 6048; CIL III 13615, 14165 (cf. IGLS I, 55).

4 Flavius Iosephus, Antiquitates Iudaicae XIV, 74-76; idem, Bellum Iudaicum, I, 155-57.

5 Bowersock 1983, 91; Millar 1993, 95, 409.

6 Freeman 1996, 107, who points at administrative issues.

7 Jones 1928, 146-47, n. 3.

8 Welles Kraeling 1938, 435, n. 171.

9 Kennedy 1980, 297-99.

1 Cotton 2000, 354-57.

2 AE 1971 551 = IGLS XIII.1, 9063.

3 AE 1979 62. On his career, see: Dabrowa 1995, 100.

4 Cotton 2000, 355.

1 Arrianus, Parthike, Fr. 85; AE 1950 66 = AE 1952 94; B. E. Thomasson, Laterculi praesidum, III, 183, n. 58; IRT 545.

2 AE 1968, 510-511.

3 AE 1972 616 = SEG XVII 584 = DNTH 113 = Dobson 1978, n. 113; AE 1972 617. On the mission of this men in Cyrenaica, see: Wheeler 2000, 292-293.

4 Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica, 4, 2, 3-4; SHA, Vita Hadriani, 5, 8; Petolescu 1993, 288, n. 26-29.

5 It's about some coins issued during Trajan's reign by Caesarea in Cappadocia, discovered at Ptolemais, in Cyrenaica; Kraeling 1962, 17, 268, 269, n. 291; BMC, Cyrenaica, CCX; cf. BMC, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Syria, 53. n. 54-57; 59, n. 112-16.

6 Pucci 1981, 58; Applebaum 1979, 310-14; Strobel 1988a, 266-67.

7 BGU I 140 = DNTH 333; Keppie 1973, 861; Strobel 1988a, 266.

8 Wheeler 2000.

9 Préaux 1950-1951, 123-39; Dussaud 1955, 154; Petersen 1967, 160, n. 3; M. P. Speidel 1977, 689-93; Kennedy 1980, 289-92; Strobel 1988a, 251-80; Freeman 1996, 91-118; Gatier 2000, 341-49; Strobel 1988b, 196 and Strobel 1988a, 262-63, 266-67 state that for 12 years since 106, legio XXII Deiotariana was the single legion leftin Egypt. Wheeler 2000, 288, n. 168 considers this thesis not plausible.

10 BMC, Phoenicia, XXXVII; Rey-Coquais 1974, 167 and Rey-Coquais 1978, 68 states that legio XV Apollinaris stationed temporarely at Arados. Against this: Howgego 1985, 257, who pleads for the presence of the legion in this area during the Jewish uprising of 132-135 AD. This theory is mere speculation as legio XV Apollinaris took part to Arrianus' operations against the Alans in full strength (cf. ãEktacij kataì 'Alanw½n 5, 15, 24). The coin found at Arados is dated in 115/116 AD (Howgego 1985, 257), 113/114 AD (Reinach 1914, 6-7, n. 4).

11 Wheeler 2000, 291.

1 DNTH = P. Bremen 1 = CPJ 438; Birley 1997, 74; Pucci 1981, 57-8, n. 67; cf. 58-9; Smallwood 1976, 402, n. 50 states there was only one legion in Egypt at this time.

2 See n. 38

3 See n. 39.

4 Gatier 2000, 343.

5 Ibidem.

6 Sartre 1974, 86 = AE 1974 659 = AE 1909 132.

1 M.P. Speidel 1977, 697-98.

2 Ibidem, 698, n. 35; Pflaum 1969, 225 f.; Keppie 1973, 859-64; Avi-Yonah 1973, 209-213.

3 Isaac-Roll 1979, 149-55. Their hypothesis was contested by Rea 1980, 220-21; Isaac-Roll 1982, 131-32, brought new arguments for their solution.

4 Kennedy 1980, 299-302.

5 Nero: Landau 1976, 76-80; Trajan: CIL III 141552; Filow 1906, 68-70; Lepper 1948, 177; Hadrian: Avi-Yonah 1939, 57 f.

6 ILS 9491; AE 1939 132; Guey 1938, 56-7; Lepper 1948, 180-83.

7 Similar inscriptions were discovered on the aqueduct from Caesarea Maritima and other places from Judaea: Lifshtitz 1960, 109-11; Tzori 1971, 53-4.

8 Gatier 2000, 344.

9 Seyrig 1941, 31-44; Kindler 1975, 14-147; Kindler 1983, p. 92-95.

10 CIL III 14165 = IGLS IV 1400; Keppie 1986, 194 = Keppie 2000, 423; Rémy 1986, 61; Strobel 1988a, 262, 264; E. L. Wheeler 1996, 255-56.

1 Wheeler 1996, 256, n. 56 with extensive bibliography.

References

ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] AE: Année Épigraphique, Paris, 1888-

[2] AFRBA 1983: Mitchell, S., (ed.), Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia: proceedings of a colloquium held at University College, Swansea, in April 1981, BAR, Oxford, 1983.

[3] Applebaum 1979: Applebaum, S., Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene, Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity, 28, ed. J. Neusner, Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1979.

[4] Berchem: Berchem, D. v., Une inscription flavienne du Musée d'Antioche, Museum Helveticum XL, Basel, Schwabe Verlag, 1983.

[5] Avi-Yonah 1939: Avi-Yonah, M., Greek and Latin Inscriptions from Jerusalem and Beisan, QDAP 8, 1939, 54-61.

[6] Avi-Yonah 1973: Avi-Yonah, M., When did Judaea become a consular province, IEJ 23/4, 1973, 209-13.

[7] Birley 1997: Birley, A.R., Hadrian: The Restless Emperor, London-New York, Routledge, 1997.

[8] Bowersock 1983: Bowersock, G. W., Roman Arabia, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1983.

[9] BGU: 1895-2005, Ägyptische Urkunden aus den Staatlichen [Königlichen] Museen zu Berlin, Griechische Urkunden. 19. vol.: Berlin, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin

[10] BMC: British Museum Catalog of Greek Coins, 1873-1927.

[11] CPJ: Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum, ed. V. Tcherikower, V. Fuks, I, 1957.

[12] Cotton 2000: Cotton, H. M., The Legio VI Ferrata, in Y. le Bohec, C. Wolff(éd.), Les Légions de Rome sous le Haut-Empire, Actes du Congrès de Lyon (17-19 septembre 1998), Lyon, Diffusion de Boccard, 2000, 351-57.

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[14] Dabrowa 1998: Dabrowa, E., The Governors of Roman Syria from Augustus to Septimius Severus, Antiquitas. Reihe 1, Abhandlungen zur alten Geschichte, Bd. 45., Bonn, R. Habelt, 1998.

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[19] Dussaud 1955: Dussaud, R., La pénétration des Arabes en Syrie avant L'Islam, Paris, P. Geuthner, 1955.

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[21] Filow 1906: Filow, B., Die Legionen der Provinz Moesia von Augustus bis auf Diokletian, Leipzig, 1906.

[22] Guey 1938: Guey, J., Inscriptions du second siècle relative à l'annone militaire, Mélanges de l' Ecole française de Rome 55, Rome, 1938, 565-77.

[23] Gebhardt 2002: Gebhardt, A., Imperiale Politik und provinziale Entwicklung. Untersuchungen zum Verhältnis von Kaiser, Heer und Städten im Syrien der vorseverischen Zeit, Klio: Beiträge zur alten Geschichte, neue Folge Band 4., Berlin, Akademie Verlag, 2002.

[24] Hartmann 2004: Hartmann, M., 2004, Kurzbericht über die Geophysikalische Untersuchungen und den Survey im August 2004, Basel, Mavors Institute für antike Militärgeschichte, 2004, http://www.mavors.org/PDFs/Satala Bericht 04.pdf.

[25] Howgego 1985: Howgego, C. J., Greek Imperial Countermarks: Studies in the Provincial Coinage of the Roman Empire, London, Royal Numismatic Society, 1985.

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[27] Isaac-Roll 1982: Isaac, B., Roll, I., 1982, Legio II Traiana in Judaea - a reply, ZPE 47, 131-32.

[28] Isaac 1990: Isaac, B., The Limits of the Empire. The Roman Army in the East, Oxford Clarendon Press, 1990.

[29] Jones 1928: Jones, A. H. M., Inscriptions from Jerash, JRS 18, 1928, 144-78.

[30] Kennedy 1980: Kennedy, D. L., Legio VI Ferrata: The Annexation and Early Garrison of Arabia, HSCPh 84, 1980, 283-309.

[31] Keppie 1973: Keppie, L. J. F., Legionary Garrison of Judaea under Hadrian, Latomus 32, Bruxelles, 1973, 859-64 = Keppie, L. J. F., Legions and Veterans. Roman Army Papers 1971-2000, Mavors Roman Army Researches, vol. XII, ed. M. P. Speidel, Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2000, 219-24.

[32] Keppie 1986: Keppie, L. J. F., 1986, Legions in the East from Augustus to Trajan, The defence of he Roman and Byzantine East, BAR Int. ser. 297, Oxford, 1986, 411-429 = Keppie, L. J. F., Legions and Veterans. Roman Army Papers 1971-2000, Mavors Roman Army Researches, vol. XII, ed. M. P. Speidel, Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2000, 182- 200.

[33] Kindler 1975: Kindler, A., Two Coins of the Third Legio Cyrenaica struck under Antoninus Pius, IEJ 25, 1975, 14-147.

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